خاورشناسی
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معنی کلمه خاورشناسی
معنی واژه خاورشناسی
Orientalist
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خاورشناسی
معنی:
خاورشناسی یا شرق‌شناسی به رشته‌ای گفته می‌شود که درباره کشورهای شرقی گفتگو می‌کند و درباره شرق قضاوت کرده و واقعیت‌های آن را بررسی و تفسیر می‌کند.
ادوارد سعید در مقدمهٔ کتاب معروف خود، شرق‌شناسی، این مفهوم را این گونه تعریف می‌کند: «خاورشناسی عبارت از نوعی سبک فکری است که بر مبنای یک تمایز شناختی و شناخت‌شناختی است که میان «شرق» و (غالب موارد) «غرب» قرار دارد.»
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منابع
↑ سعید، ادوارد، شرق‌شناسی، ترجمهٔ عبدالرحیم گواهی، تهران: دفتر نشر فرهنگ اسلامی، ۱۳۷۷، صص ۱۵-۱۶
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رده‌های صفحه: خاورشناسینظریه‌های زیبایی‌شناسی
از ویکی پدیا
قس عربی
الاستشراق ظاهرة هامة وتعتبر دراسة کافّة البنى الثّقافیّة للشّرق من وجهة نظر غربی، وتستخدم کلمة الاستشراق أیضاً لتدلیل تقلید أو تصویر جانب من الحضارات الشرقیة لدى الرواة والفنانین فی الغرب. المعنى الأخیر هو معنى مهمول ونادر استخدامه، والاستخدام الأغلب هو دراسة الشرق فی العصر الاستعماری ما بین القرن الثامن عشر والتاسع عشر. لذلک صارت کلمة الاستشراق تدل على المفهوم السلبی وتنطوی على التفاسیر المضرّة والقدیمة للحضارات الشرقیة والناس الشرقیین. وجهة النظر هذه مبیَّنة فی کتاب إدوارد سعید الاستشراق (المنشور سنة 1978).
محتویات
1 مراحل الاستشراق
2 تاریخ الاستشراق
3 المستشرقون الحقیقیون
4 وصلات خارجیة
مراحل الاستشراق
من أبرز المراحل الّتی یُقسّم إلیها الاستشراق ما ذهب إلیه الدّکتور المبروک المنصوری فی کتابه "الدّراسات الدّینیّة المعاصرة من المرکزیّة الغربیّة إلى النّسبیّة الثّقافیّة: الاستشراق، القرآن، الهویّة والقیم الدیّنیّة"، إذ قسّم الاستشراق إلى ثلاث مراحل أساسیّة هی: الاستشراق الاستعماری: Colonial Orientalism: ویشمل کلّ ما أٌنتج من بدایة تشکّل هذا التوجّه مع الحرکة الرّومانسیّة الغربیّة إلى حوالى 1960. الاستشراق ما بعد الاستعمارای: Post Colonial Orientalism: وهو التوجّه الّذی تشکّل فی المرحلة ما بعد الاستعماریّة. ویرتکز أساسا على الجانب الثّقافیّ واللّغویّ وقد تلبّس لبوسا جدیدا. الاستشراق الجدید: New Orientalism: وهو التیّار الّذی تشکّل فی بدایة هذا القرن. وقد دشّنه کریستوف لکسنبرغ بکتابه "القراءة السّریانیّة الآرامیّة للقرآن" .
تاریخ الاستشراق
من الصعب أن نکون دقیقین عن أصل الفرق بین الغرب والشرق. لکن ازدهار المسیحیة والإسلام خلق خلاف حضاری کبیر بین أوروبا المسیحیة والشرق وشمال أفریقیا الإسلامی. فی العصور الوسطى کان الأوروبیین المسیحیین یرون المسلمین کأعداء جهنمیین لهم. وکان معرفة الأوروبیین للحضارات أبعد شرقاً من الشرق الإسلامی أکثر خیالاً. ولکن کان هناک معرفة قلیلة للحضارات الهندیة والصینیة من حیث کان تأتی سلع غالیة مثل السیرامیک والحریر. وبکثرة الحملات الاستعماریة والاستکشافیة صار هناک تمییز بین الحضارات الغیر کاتبة، مثل فی أفریقیا والامیرکاتین، والحضارات الکاتبة والمثقفة فی الشرق.
فی القرن الثامن عشر، المفکرین المنورین یصفون أحیاناً جوانب من الحضارات الشرقیة کأحسن من الغرب المسیحی. مثلاً: فولتیر روَّج البحث والدراسة عن الزردشتیة، فی أنها دیانة تدعم الربوبیة العقلانیة أحسن عن المسیحیة. آخرین مجدوا التساهل الدینی فی الشرق الإسلامی بدلاً من الغرب المسیحی، أو منزلة العلم فی الصین والشرق عامةً. مع ترجمة الافیستا واکتشاف اللغات الهندوروبیة، وضِّح الاتصال بین التاریخ الشرقی والغربی القدیم. ولکن صار ذلک الاکتشاف فی وسط المنافسة بین فرنسا وبریطانیا فی الهیمنة على الهند، وکان الاکتشاف متعلق فی فهم الحضارات المستعمرة کی یتحکم علیها المستعمر بسهولة. ولکن الاقتصادیین اللیبیرالیین مثل جیمس میل ذم الأمم الشرقیة بأن الحضارات تلک کانوا ثابتات وفاسدة أو فاسقة. حتى کارل مارکس وصف أسلوب التصنیع الأسیاوی کرافضة التغییر. والمبشرین المسیحیین کانوا یثلبون الدیانات الشرقیة کمجرد خرافات.
فی المعنى الاصطلاحی: علم یقضی بمسائل الشرق ودراسة وتحلیل واقعه، وبعبارة أخرى: هو الدراسات التی تتعلّق بالشرق. أمّا المعنى اللغوی للفظ (شرق) بالإنجلیزیة فهو (بالإنکلیزیة: Orient)، والدول الشرقیة تسمّى (The orient)، والإنسان الشرقی (بالإنکلیزیة: Oriental)، وکلّ من یبحث فی تاریخ الشرق وأحوال أُممه یُدعى (بالإنکلیزیة: Orientalist) أو مستشرق.
الاستشراق ظهور الاستشراق یعتبر الاستشراق حدیث الظهور إلاّ أنّ معرفة الشرق وما یتعلّق به من أفکار فذلک یعود إلى الأزمان الغابرة، ویؤیّد ذلک ما عثر علیه فی التنقیبات من النقوش الأثریة على الأحجار، ثمّ تلت ذلک حرکة الاستشراق فی القرون الوسطى، لتؤکّد ذلک من خلال الوقائع التاریخیة والنصوص الجغرافیة، وکتب الأسفار وغیرها.
أمّا ما هو الزمن الذی أخذ فیه الاستشراق نموّه الحقیقی، وأصبح علماً یُدرّس، فیمکن القول: إنّ المساعی التی بذلها الباحثون من إیطالیا وبریطانیا والبرتغال لدراسة الشرق، کان فی القرن الخامس عشر والسادس عشر المیلادی، وکان من بینهم على سبیل المثال توماس هربرت.
کان هذا الباحث الشاب ذکیاً وماهراً، استطاع الوصول إلى السواحل الجنوبیة لإیران قادماً من الهند، بالتنسیق مع السفیر البریطانی آنذاک، فبدأ بکتابة بحوثه حول إیران والإیرانیین. فی القرن السابع عشر والثامن عشر أخذ الاستشراق بالانتشار حتّى أنّ کتاب (کلستان سعدی) طبع لأوّل مرّة فی أوروبا خلال تلک الفترة.
ومنذ أواخر القرن السابع عشر المیلادی أصبحت مدینتا لندن وباریس من المراکز الرئیسیة فی تدریس الاستشراق، ثمّ توسّع حتّى أصبحت أکثر البلدان الأوربیة فی الوقت الحاضر لدیها معاهد خاصّة بتدریس الاستشراق بجمیع أقسامه، وتخرّج فی کلّ عام أعداداً کبیرة من الأساتذة، الذین یغذّون البحوث والدراسات فی أوروبا فی مجال الاستشراق.
بالمدرسه علمو شی تانی أقسام البحوث والتخصّصات یمکن تقسیم البحوث التی کتبها المستشرقون إلى ما یأتی: التاریخ، الاقتصاد، الجغرافیة، اللغة، الآداب، علم الإنسان، الفنون، الأدیان، الفلسفة، علم الآثار.
أمّا الفروع الموجودة فی الجامعات الغربیة، والتی اختصّت بدراسة تاریخ الأُمم السابقة وأحوالها، فهی: فرع دراسة المصریین، فرع دراسة الآشوریین، فرع دراسة الإیرانیین، فرع دراسة العرب، فرع دراسة الأتراک، فرع دراسة الصینیین، فرع دراسة الهنود، فرع دراسة الیابانیین، فرع دراسة السامیین والسومریین.
ملاحظة: توسّع قسم دراسة أحوال المصریین حتّى شمل جمیع أنحاء القارة الأفریقیة.
المستشرقون الحقیقیون
إنّ الذین جاءوا لدراسة الشرق کانوا أفراداً متفاوتین، فمنهم من جاء بلباس عسکری أو غیر عسکری، أو بصفة أطباء أو معلّمین، لکنّهم فی حقیقة الأمر قساوسة کان هدفهم التنصیر بالدین المسیحی، وکانوا یتردّدون بکثرة على لبنان وسوریة ومصر. ظلّت حرکة الاستشراق موضع شکّ لدى الکثیر، وبسبب هذا الغموض انقسم الناس نحوها إلى فریقین:
الأول: ینظر إلى المستشرقین بعین الاحترام.
والثانی: ینظر إلیه على العکس من ذلک، لأنّه کان من بینهم أُناس مهّدوا للاستعمار الغربی، وکانوا أداة لتسلّط الغرب على الشرق، کما لا یخفى أنّ منهم جماعة دفعهم شوق التعرّف على الشرق وأسراره، وتحمّلوا فی سبیل ذلک کثیراً من الصعوبات والمشاق. وعلى أیّ حال مهما کانت الأغراض والدوافع التی دفعت للاستشراق، فإنّ الاستشراق شیء، والمستشرقین شیء آخر.
وصلات خارجیة
BBC Documentary: on Orientalism-Edward Saidإدوارد سعید یتحدث عن الاستشراق فی فلم وثائقی من إنتاج ال بی بی إن.
^ المبروک المنصوری، الدّراسات الدّینیّة المعاصرة من المرکزیّة الغربیّة إلى النّسبیّة الثّقافیّة: الاستشراق، القرآن، الهویّة والقیم الدّینیّة، تونس، الدّار المتوسّطیّة للنّشر، 2010
هناک المزید من الصور والملفات فی ویکیمیدیا کومنز حول: استشراق
تصنیفات: حرکات ثقافیةنظریات التاریخ استعمار استشراق
قس انگلیسی
Orientalism is a term used by art historians, literary and cultural studies scholars for the imitation or depiction of aspects of Middle Eastern, and East Asian cultures (Eastern cultures) by American and European writers, designers and artists. In particular, Orientalist painting, depicting more specifically "the Middle East", was one of the many specialisms of 19th century Academic art. Since the publication of Edward Saids Orientalism, the term has arguably acquired a negative connotation.
Contents
1 Meaning of the term
2 Orientalizing styles in Europe
3 Orientalist art
3.1 Pre-19th century
3.2 French Orientalism
3.3 British Orientalism
3.4 Elsewhere
3.4.1 Orientalist artists
4 Literature and music
4.1 Examples
4.1.1 Literature
4.1.2 Opera, ballets, musicals
4.1.3 Orchestral works
4.1.4 Shorter musical pieces
4.1.5 Theatre
4.1.6 Photography
4.1.7 Pulp magazines
4.1.8 Films
4.1.9 Comics
5 Eastern views of the West
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
9.1 Mainly on art
9.2 Literature
10 External links
Meaning of the term
"Orientalism" refers to the Orient or East, in contrast to the Occident or West, and often, as seen by the West.
"Orientalism" is widely used in art, to refer to the works of the many Western 19th century artists, who specialized in "Oriental" subjects, often drawing on their travels to Western Asia. Artists as well as scholars were already described as "Orientalists" in the 19th century, especially in France, where the term, with a rather dismissive sense, was largely popularized by the critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary. Such disdain did not prevent the Societé des Peintres Orientalistes ("Society of Orientalist Painters") being founded in 1893, with Jean-Léon Gérôme as honorary president; the word was less often used as a term for artists in 19th century England.
Since the 18th century, "Orientalist" has been the traditional term for a scholar of Oriental studies; however the use in English of "Orientalism" to describe the academic subject of "Oriental studies" is rare; the Oxford English Dictionary cites only one such usage, by Lord Byron in 1812. The academic discipline of Oriental studies is now more often called Asian studies.
In 1978, the Palestinian-American scholar Edward Said published his influential and controversial book, Orientalism, which "would forever redefine" the word; he used the term to describe a pervasive Western tradition, both academic and artistic, of prejudiced outsider interpretations of the East, shaped by the attitudes of European imperialism in the 18th and 19th centuries. Said was critical of both this scholarly tradition and of some modern scholars, particularly Bernard Lewis. Said was mainly concerned with literature in the widest sense, especially French literature, and did not cover visual art and Orientalist painting, though others, notably Linda Nochlin, have tried to extend his analysis to art, "with uneven results". Saids work has given rise to a new discipline called Postcolonialism or Postcolonial studies.
Orientalizing styles in Europe
Further information: Orientalism in early modern France
The Moresque style of Renaissance ornament is a European adaptation of the Islamic arabesque that began in the late 15th century and was to be used in some types of work, such as bookbinding, until almost the present day. Early architectural use of motifs lifted from the Indian subcontinent has sometimes been called "Hindoo style". One of the earliest examples is the façade of Guildhall, London (1788–1789). The style gained momentum in the west with the publication of views of India by William Hodges, and William and Thomas Daniell from about 1795. Examples of "Hindoo" architecture are Sezincote House (c. 1805) in Gloucestershire, built for a nabob returned from Bengal, and the Royal Pavilion in Brighton.
Turquerie, which began as early as the late 15th century, continued until at least the 18th century, and included both the use of "Turkish" styles in the decorative arts, the adoption of Turkish costume at times, and interest in art depicting the Ottoman Empire itself. Venice, the traditional trading partner of the Ottomans, was the earliest centre, with France becoming more prominent in the 18th century.
Chinoiserie is the catch-all term for the fashion for Chinese themes in decoration in Western Europe, beginning in the late 17th century and peaking in waves, especially Rococo Chinoiserie, ca. 1740–1770. From the Renaissance to the 18th century, Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chinese ceramics with only partial success. Early hints of Chinoiserie appeared in the 17th century in nations with active East India companies: England (the British East India Company), Denmark (the Danish East India Company), the Netherlands (the Dutch East India Company) and France (the French East India Company). Tin-glazed pottery made at Delft and other Dutch towns adopted genuine blue-and-white Ming decoration from the early 17th century. Early ceramic wares made at Meissen and other centers of true porcelain imitated Chinese shapes for dishes, vases and teawares (see Chinese export porcelain).
Pleasure pavilions in "Chinese taste" appeared in the formal parterres of late Baroque and Rococo German palaces, and in tile panels at Aranjuez near Madrid. Thomas Chippendales mahogany tea tables and china cabinets, especially, were embellished with fretwork glazing and railings, ca 1753–70. Sober homages to early Xing scholars furnishings were also naturalized, as the tang evolved into a mid-Georgian side table and squared slat-back armchairs that suited English gentlemen as well as Chinese scholars. Not every adaptation of Chinese design principles falls within mainstream "chinoiserie." Chinoiserie media included imitations of lacquer and painted tin (tôle) ware that imitated japanning, early painted wallpapers in sheets, and ceramic figurines and table ornaments. Small pagodas appeared on chimneypieces and full-sized ones in gardens. Kew has a magnificent garden pagoda designed by Sir William Chambers. The Wilhelma (1846) in Stuttgart is an example of Moorish Revival architecture. Leighton House, built for the artist Lord Leighton, has a conventional facade but elaborate Arab-style interiors, including original Islamic tiles and other elements as well as Victorian Orientalizing work.
After 1860, Japonisme, sparked by the importing of Japanese woodblock prints, became an important influence in the western arts. In particular, many modern French artists such as Monet and Degas were influenced by the Japanese style. Mary Cassatt, an American artist who worked in France, used elements of combined patterns, flat planes and shifting perspective of Japanese prints in her own images. The paintings of James McNeill Whistler and his "Peacock Room" demonstrated how he used aspects of Japanese tradition and are some of the finest works of the genre. California architects Greene and Greene were inspired by Japanese elements in their design of the Gamble House and other buildings.
In architecture, Egyptian revival architecture was popular mostly in the early and mid-19th century, and Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture or Moorish Revival architecture, covering a variety of general Islamic or Indian features, in the later part of the century; "Saracenic" referred to styles from Arabic-speaking areas. Both were sometimes used in the Orient itself by colonial governments.
Orientalist art
Pre-19th century
Depictions of Islamic "Moors" and "Turks" (imprecisely named Muslim groups of North Africa and West Asia) can be found in Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque art. In Biblical scenes in Early Netherlandish painting, secondary figures, especially Romans and Jews, were given exotic costumes that distantly reflected the clothes of the Near East. The Three Magi in Nativity scenes were an especial focus for this. Renaissance Venice had a phase of particular interest in depictions of the Ottoman Empire in painting and prints. Gentile Bellini, who travelled to Constantinople and painted the Sultan, and Vittore Carpaccio were the leading painters. By then the depictions were more accurate, with men typically dressed all in white. The depiction of Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting sometimes draws from Orientalist interest, but more often just reflects the prestige these expensive objects had in the period.
Jean-Étienne Liotard (1702–1789) visited Istanbul and painted numerous pastels of Turkish domestic scenes; he also continued to wear Turkish dress for much of the time when back in Europe. The ambitious Scottish 18th century artist Gavin Hamilton found a solution to the problem of using modern dress, considered unheroic and inelegant, in history painting by using Middle Eastern settings with Europeans wearing local costume, as travellers were advised to do. His huge James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra (1758, now Edinburgh) elevates tourism to the heroic, with the two travellers wearing what look very like togas. Many travellers had themselves painted in exotic Eastern dress on their return, including Lord Byron, as did many who had never left Europe, including Madame de Pompadour. Byrons poetry was highly influential in introducing Europe to the heady cocktail of Romanticism in exotic Oriental settings which was to dominate 19th century Oriental art.
French Orientalism
French Orientalist painting was transformed by Napoleons ultimately unsuccessful invasion of Egypt and Syria in 1798-1801, which stimulated great public interest in Egyptology, and was also recorded in subsequent years by Napoleons court painters, especially Baron Gros, although the Middle Eastern campaign was not one on which he accompanied the army. Two of his most successful paintings, Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa (1804) and Battle of Abukir (1806) focus on the Emperor, as he was by then, but include many Egyptian figures, as does the less effective Napoleon at the Battle of the Pyramids (1810). Girodets La Révolte du Caire (1810) was another large and prominent example. A well-illustrated Description de l’Égypte was published by the French Government in twenty volumes between 1809 and 1828, concentrating on antiquities.
Eugène Delacroixs first great success, The Massacre at Chios (1824) was painted before he visited the Greece or the East, and followed his friend Théodore Géricaults The Raft of the Medusa in showing a recent incident in distant parts that had aroused public opinion. Greece was still fighting for independence from the Ottomans, and was effectively as exotic as more Muslim parts of the empire. Delacroix followed up with Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi (1827), commemorating a siege of the previous year, and the Death of Sardanapalus, inspired by Lord Byron, which although set in antiquity has been credited with beginning the mixture of sex, violence, lassitude and exoticism which runs through much French Orientalist painting. In 1832 Delacroix finally visited what is now Algeria, recently conquered by the French, and Morocco, as part of a diplomatic mission to the Sultan of Morocco. He was greatly struck by what he saw, comparing the North African way of life to that of the Ancient Romans, and continued to paint subjects from his trip on his return to France. Like many later Orientalist painters, he was frustrated by the difficulty of sketching subjects including women, and many of his scenes feature warriors on horses, or North African Jews. However he was apparently able to get into the womens quarters or harem of a house to sketch what became The Women of Algiers; few later harem scenes had this claim to authenticity.
When Ingres, the untravelled director of the French Académie de peinture, painted a highly coloured vision of a Turkish bath (illustration, right), he made his eroticized Orient publicly acceptable by his diffuse generalizing of the female forms (who might all have been the same model.) More open sensuality was seen as acceptable in the exotic Orient. This imagery persisted in art into the early 20th century, as evidenced in Matisses orientalist semi-nudes from his Nice period, and his use of Oriental costumes and patterns. Ingres pupil Théodore Chassériau (1819–1856) had already achieved success with his nude The Toilette of Esther (1841, Louvre) and equestrian portrait of Ali-Ben-Hamet, Caliph of Constantine and Chief of the Haractas, Followed by his Escort (1846) before he first visited the East, but in later decades the steamship made travel much easier and increasing numbers of artists travelled to the Middle East and beyond, painting a wide range of Oriental scenes.
In many of these works, they portrayed the Orient as exotic, colorful and sensual, not to say stereotyped. Such works typically concentrated on Near-Eastern Islamic cultures, as those were the ones visited by artists as France became more engaged in North Africa. French artists such as Eugène Delacroix, Jean-Léon Gérôme and Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres painted many works depicting Islamic culture, often including lounging odalisques. They stressed both lassitude and visual spectacle. Other scenes, especially in genre painting, have been seen as either closely comparable to their equivalents set in modern-day or historical Europe, or as also reflecting an Orientalist mind-set in the Saidian sense of the term. Gérôme was the precursor, and often the master, of a number of French painters in the later part of the century whose works were often frankly salacious, frequently featuring scenes in harems, public baths and slave auctions (the last two also available with classical decor), and responsible, with others, for "the equation of Orientalism with the nude in pornographic mode".
British Orientalism
William Holman Hunt, A Street Scene in Cairo; The Lantern-Makers Courtship, 1854-61
Though British political interest in the territories of the unravelling Ottoman Empire was as intense as in France, it was mostly more discreetly exercised. The origins of British Orientalist 19th century painting owe more to religion than military conquest or the search for plausible locations for naked females. The leading British genre painter, Sir David Wilkie was 55 when he travelled to Istanbul and Jerusalem in 1840, dying off Gibraltar during the return voyage. Though not noted as a religious painter, Wilkie made the trip with a Protestant agenda to reform religious painting, as he believed that: "a Martin Luther in painting is as much called for as in theology, to sweep away the abuses by which our divine pursuit is encumbered", by which he meant traditional Christian iconography. He hoped to find more authentic settings and decor for Biblical subjects at their original location, though his death prevented more than studies being made. Other artists including the Pre-Raphaelite William Holman Hunt and David Roberts had similar motivations, giving an emphasis on realism in British Orientalist art from the start. The French artist James Tissot also used contemporary Middle Eastern landscape and decor for Biblical subjects, with little attempt at historicising costumes or other fittings.
William Holman Hunt produced a number of major paintings of Biblical subjects drawing on his Middle Eastern travels, improvising variants of contemporary Arab costume and furnishings to avoid specifically Islamic styles, and also some landscapes and genre subjects. The biblical subjects included The Scapegoat (1856), The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple (1860), and The Shadow of Death (1871). The Miracle of the Holy Fire (1899) was intended as a picturesque satire on the local Eastern Christians, of whom, like most English visitors, Hunt took a very dim view. His A Street Scene in Cairo; The Lantern-Makers Courtship (1854–61) is a rare contemporary narrative scene, as the young man feels his fiancés face, which he is not allowed to see, through her veil, as an Westerner in the background beats his way up the street with his stick. This a rare intrusion of a clearly contemporary figure into a Orientalist scene; mostly they claim the picturesqueness of the historical painting so popular at the time, without the trouble of researching authentic costumes and settings.
When Gérôme exhibited For Sale; Slaves at Cairo at the Royal Academy in London in 1871, it was "widely found offensive", perhaps partly because the British liked to think they had successfully suppressed the slave trade in Egypt, also for cruelty and "representing fleshiness for its own sake". But Rana Kabbani believes that "French Orientalist painting, as exemplified by the works of Gérôme, may appear more sensual, gaudy, gory and sexually explicit than its British counterpart, but this is a difference of style not substance ... Similar strains of fascination and repulsion convulsed their artists" Nonetheless, nudity and violence are more evident in British paintings set in the ancient world, and "the iconography of the odalisque ... the Oriental sex slave whose image is offered up to the viewer as freely as she herself supposedly was to her master - is almost entirely French in origin", though taken up with enthusiasm by Italian and other painters.
John Frederick Lewis, who lived for several years in a traditional mansion in Cairo, painted highly detailed works showing both realistic genre scenes of Middle Eastern life and more idealized scenes in upper class Egyptian interiors with no traces of Western cultural influence yet apparent. His very careful and loving representation of Islamic architecture, furnishings, screens, and costumes set new standards of realism, which influenced other artists, including Gérôme in his later works. He "never painted a nude", and his wife modelled for several of his harem scenes, which, with the rare examples by the classicist painter Lord Leighton, imagine "the harem as a place of almost English domesticity, ... ... womens fully clothed respectability suggests a moral healthiness to go with their natural good looks".
English and French harems
Ingres, Odalisque and slave-girl, 1842
Fernand Cormon, Murder in the Seraglio, 1872
Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904), Pool in a Harem, c. 1876
John Frederick Lewis, The Reception, 1873
Frederick Goodall, A New Light in the Harem, 1884
Other artists concentrated on landscape painting, often of desert scenes, including Richard Dadd and Edward Lear. David Roberts (1796–1864) produced architectural and landscape views, many of antiquities, and published very successful books of lithographs from them.
Elsewhere
Russian Orientalist art was largely concerned with the areas of Central Asia that Russia was conquering during the century, and also in historical painting with the Mongols who had dominated Russia for much of the Middle Ages, who were rarely shown in a good light. Nationalist historical painting in Central Europe and the Balkans dwelt on Turkish oppression, with battle scenes and maidens about to be raped.
The Saidian analysis has not prevented a strong revival of interest in, and collecting of, 19th century Orientalist works since the 1970s, the latter in large part led by Middle Eastern buyers,
Orientalist artists
Gustave Boulanger (1824-88)
Algerian shops, by Louis Comfort Tiffany
Samarkand, by Richard-Karl Karlovitch Zommer
The midday meal, Cairo, by John Frederick Lewis
Eduard Charlemont (1848-1906)
Théodore Chassériau (1819–1856)
Richard Dadd (1817–1886)
Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863)
Ludwig Deutsch (1855–1935)
Alphonse Étienne Dinet
Edmund Dulac
Eugène Fromentin (1820–1876)
Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904)
Gustave Achille Guillaumet (1840-1887)
William Holman Hunt (1827–1910)
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780–1867)
Edward Lear (1812–1888)
Frederic Leighton (1830–1896)
John Frederick Lewis (1805–1876)
Jean-Étienne Liotard (1702–1789)
Edwin Longsden Long, a specialist in Ancient Egyptian scenes
Alberto Pasini (1826–1899)
Théodore Ralli (1852–1909)
David Roberts (painter) (1796–1864)
Alexandre Roubtzoff (1884–1949)
The Discussion (Giulio Rosati)
Giulio Rosati (1858–1917)
James Tissot (1836–1902)
David Wilkie (1785–1841)
Jean-Baptiste van Mour (1671–1731)
Ecem Kafadar (1885–1940)
Edwin Lord Weeks (1849–1903)
Adolf Schreyer (1828–1899)
Literature and music
Authors and composers are not commonly referred to as "Orientalist" in the way that artists are, and relatively few specialized in Oriental topics or styles, or are even best known for their works including them. But many major figures, from Mozart to Flaubert, have produced significant works with Oriental subjects or treatments. For example, Verdis opera Aida (1871) is set in Egypt as portrayed through the content and the visual spectacle. "Aida" depicts a militaristic Egypts tyranny over Ethiopia.
In music, Orientalism may be applied to styles occurring in different periods, such as the alla Turca, used by multiple composers including Mozart and Beethoven. Orientalism is also traceable in music that is considered to have effects of exoticism, including the japonisme in Claude Debussys piano music all the way to the sitar being used in recordings by The Beatles.
In his novel Salammbô, Gustave Flaubert used ancient Carthage in North Africa as a foil to ancient Rome. He portrayed its culture as morally corrupting and suffused with dangerously alluring eroticism. This novel proved hugely influential on later portrayals of ancient Semitic cultures.
The use of the Orient as an exotic backdrop continued in the movies, for instance, those featuring Rudolph Valentino. Later the rich Arab in robes became a more popular theme, especially during the oil crisis of the 1970s. In the 1990s the Arab terrorist became a common villain figure in Western movies.
Examples
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Literature
The Travels of Marco Polo, 13th century
Travels of Sir John Mandeville, 14th century invented account of travels.
Christopher Marlowe, Tamburlaine, 1588/89
John Dryden, Aureng-zebe (1675), a heroic drama in theory based on the life of the reigning Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb
Montesquieu — Persian Letters (Lettres persanes) (1721)
William Thomas Beckford — Vathek (1786)
Robert Southey — Thalaba the Destroyer (1801)
Robert Southey — Curse of Kehama (1810)
Lord Byron — The Bride of Abydos, The Giaour, Don Juan and other works
Samuel Taylor Coleridge — Kubla Khan (published 1816)
Thomas Moore — Lalla-Rookh (published 1817)
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe — Westöstlicher Diwan (1819)
Ralph Waldo Emerson — poem Indian Superstition (1821)
Edgar Allan Poe — Tamerlane (1827), Al Aaraaf (1829), and Israfel (1831)
Victor Hugo — Les Orientales (1829)
Gustave Flaubert — Salammbô (1862)
Eça de Queiroz — The Relic (A Relíquia) (1887) and The Mandarin (O Mandarim) (1889)
Anatole France — Thaïs (1890)
Edward FitzGerald - "translation" or adaptation of the Persian Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859)
Pierre Loti (1850–1923) - highly popular French writer, mostly on his Oriental travels & novels set as far away as Japan and Tahiti
Richard Francis Burton — translation of The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (1885–1888)
Leo Tolstoy — Hadji Murat (1912)
Victor Segalen — René Leys (1922)
Herman Hesse — Siddhartha (1922)
André Malraux — Mans Fate (1934) (La Condition humaine, 1933)
Marguerite Yourcenars Nouvelles Orientales (1938)
Opera, ballets, musicals
Costume design for Aida by Auguste Mariette (1871)
Theatre poster for The Mikado
Antonio Lucio Vivaldi — Juditha triumphans (1716)
Georg Friedrich Händel — Tamerlano (1724) and Serse (1738)
Jean-Philippe Rameau — Les Indes Galantes (1735–1736)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart — Die Entführung aus dem Serail (1782)
Gioachino Rossini — Semiramide (1823)
Giuseppe Verdi — Nabucco (1842)
Jacques Offenbach — Ba-ta-clan (1855)
Georges Bizet — Les Pêcheurs de Perles (1863)
Giuseppe Verdi — Aida (1871)
Emmanuel Chabrier — Fisch-Ton-Kan (1875)
César Cui — The Mandarins Son (1878)
Gilbert and Sullivan — The Mikado (1885)
Alexander Borodin — Prince Igor (1890)
Sidney Jones — The Geisha (1896)
Sidney Jones — San Toy (1899)
Pietro Mascagni — Iris (1899)
Howard Talbot — A Chinese Honeymoon (1896)
Giacomo Puccini — Madama Butterfly (1904)
Richard Strauss — Salome, opera in one act based on Wildes play (1905)
Giacomo Puccini — Turandot (1926)
Franz Lehár - The Land of Smiles (1929)
Sigmund Romberg, Oscar Hammerstein II & Otto Harbach — The Desert Song (1926) and film (1929)
Richard Strauss — Die ägyptische Helena, opera with libretto by Hugo von Hofmannsthal (1929)
Orchestral works
Mily Balakirev — Tamara.
Alexander Borodin — In the Steppes of Central Asia; "Polovetsian Dances" from Prince Igor.
Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov — Caucasian Sketches.
Modest Mussorgsky — "Dance of the Persian Slaves" from Khovanshchina.
Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov — Antar; Scheherezade.
Shorter musical pieces
Mily Balakirev — Islamey
Ludwig van Beethoven—Turkish March from The Ruins of Athens, opus 113 (1811)
Johann Joseph Fux - partita Turcaria, inspired by the 1683 Siege of Vienna by the Turks.
Alexander Glazunov - 5 Novelettes for String Quartet, Op 15
Albert Ketèlbey — In a Persian Market (1920), In a Chinese Temple Garden (1925), and In the Mystic Land of Egypt (1931)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart—Rondo alla turca from Piano Sonata No.11 (K.331)
Sergei Rachmaninoff — Oriental Sketch (1917)
Theatre
Okito performing the floating ball, 1910.
Tobias Bambergs magic stage act as "Okito" (Germany, 1893 – United States, 1908)
Oscar Wildes Salomé (1893, first performed in Paris 1896)
Alexanders mentalism stage act (United States, c. 1890s–1910s)
William Ellsworth Robinsons, magic stage act as "Chung Ling Soo" (United States, 1900–1918)
Photography
Photograph of Cairo by Francis Frith, 1856.
Roger Fenton
Francis Frith
Pulp magazines
Cover of Oriental Stories (Spring 1932).
Oriental Stories: A pulp magazine published 1930–34 by Chicago based Popular Fiction specialising in Orientalist fiction. The title was later changed to The Magic Carpet Magazine.
Films
Intolerance (1916)
Broken Blossoms (1919)
The Sheik (1921)
The Lives of a Bengal Lancer (1935)
The Thief of Bagdad (1940)
My Geisha (1962)
Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984)
Sex and the City 2 (2010)
Comics
The Adventures of Tintin (1929–1983)
The Upside Down Circle by Don Gilbert (1990).
Dragon and Tiger (2008)
Habibi (2011)
Design by Léon Cogniet for a ceiling decoration in the Louvre depicting the 1798 Egyptian Expedition.
Eastern views of the West
Much of Saids criticism of Western "Orientalism" is based on particularizing trends also present in Asian works by Indian, Chinese and Japanese writers and artists, in their views of Western culture and tradition. The term Occidentalism has sometimes been used to refer to negative or stereotypical views of the Western world found in Eastern societies.
Although the core of Saids criticism of the concept of "Orientalism" implies a Western view of Eastern culture, some Eastern artists adopted Western styles that particularize Eastern peoples. The Indian painter Ravi Varma painted several works that are virtually indistinguishable from some Western "Orientalist" images.needed
In the late 20th century many Western cultural themes and images began appearing in Asian art and culture, especially in Japan. English words and phrases are prominent in Japanese advertising and popular culture, and many Japanese anime are written around characters, settings, themes, and mythological figures derived from various Western cultural traditions.needed
See also
Arabist
Black orientalism
Circassian beauties
Exoticism
Occidentalism
Chinoiserie
Black Athena
Notes
^ Tromans, 6
^ from the Latin oriens; Oxford English Dictionary
^ Tromans, 20
^ Harding, 74
^ Tromans, 19
^ Tromans, 24
^ Tromans, 6, 11 (quoted), 23-25
^ The subject of Ives
^ King and Sylvester, throughout
^ Christine Riding, Travellers and Sitters: The Orientalist Portrait, in Tromans, 48-75
^ Harding, 69-70
^ Nochlin, 294-296; Tromans, 128
^ Harding, 81
^ Tromans, 135
^ Tromans, 136
^ Tromans, 14 (quoted), 162-165
^ Nochlin, 289, disputing Rosenthal assertion, and insisting that "there must be some attempt to clarify whose reality we are talking about".
^ Tromans, 16-17 and see index
^ Tromans, 135-136
^ Tromans, 43
^ Tromans, 135
^ Tromans, quote 135; 134 on his wife; generally: 22-32, 80-85, 130-135, and see index
^ Tromans, 135
^ Tromans, 102-125, covers landscape
^ Tromans, 7, 21
^ Beard and Gloag 2005, 128
^ Beard and Gloag 2005, 129
^ Beard and Gloag 2005, 129
^ "Description of contents of album "Alla Turca"". Atmaclassique.com. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
^ Daily Telegraph Review, Guardian review
References
Beard, David and Kenneth Gloag. 2005. Musicology: The Key Concepts. New York: Routledge.
Harding, James, Artistes Pompiers: French Academic Art in the 19th Century, 1979, Academy Editions, ISBN 856704512
C F Ives, "The Great Wave: The Influence of Japanese Woodcuts on French Prints", 1974, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, ISBN 0-87099-098-5
King, Donald and Sylvester, David eds. The Eastern Carpet in the Western World, From the 15th to the 17th century, Arts Council of Great Britain, London, 1983, ISBN 0-7287-0362-9
Mack, Rosamond E. Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art, 1300-1600, University of California Press, 2001 ISBN 0-520-22131-1
Meagher, Jennifer. Orientalism in Nineteenth-Century Art. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. online, accessed April 11, 2011
Nochlin, Linda, The Imaginary Orient, 1983, page numbers from reprint in The nineteenth-century visual culture reader, google books, a reaction to Rosenthals exhibition and book.
Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978 ISBN 0-394-74067-X).
Tromans, Nicholas, and others, The Lure of the East, British Orientalist Painting, 2008, Tate Publishing, ISBN 978-1-85437-733-3
Further reading
Springer, Simon. 2011, Culture of violence or violent Orientalism? Neoliberalisation and imagining the savage other in post-transitional Cambodia. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 34 (3), 305-319.
Weir, David. American Orient: Imagining the East From the Colonial Era Through the Twentieth Century (University of Massachusetts Press; 2011) 304 pages;
Mainly on art
Jean-Marc Aractingi,"Peintres Orientalistes" Editions Vues dOrient,Paris,2003
Peltre, Christine. Orientalism in Art. New York: Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.), 1998 (ISBN 0-7892-0459-2).
Rosenthal, Donald A. Orientalism: The Near East in French Painting, 1800–1880. Rochester, N.Y.: Memorial Art Gallery of the University of Rochester, 1982.
Stevens, Mary Anne, ed. The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse: European Painters in North Africa and the Near East. Exhibition catalogue. London: Royal Academy of Arts, 1984
Benjamin, Roger Orientalist Aesthetics, Art, Colonialism and French North Africa: 1880-1930, U. of California Press, 2003
Literature
Halliday, Fred. "Orientalism and Its Critics", British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 20, No. 2. (1993), pp. 145–163.
Irwin, Robert. For lust of knowing: The Orientalists and their enemies. London: Penguin/Allen Lane, 2006 (ISBN 0-7139-9415-0)
Kabbani, Rana. Imperial Fictions: Europes Myths of Orient. London: Pandora Press, 1994 (ISBN 0-04-440911-7).
Klein, Christina. Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003 (ISBN 0-520-22469-8; paperback, ISBN 0-520-23230-5).
Knight, Nathaniel. "Grigorev in Orenburg, 1851–1862: Russian Orientalism in the Service of Empire?", Slavic Review, Vol. 59, No. 1. (Spring, 2000), pp. 74–100.
Kontje, Todd. German Orientalisms. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 (ISBN 0-472-11392-5).
Little, Douglas. American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Since 1945. (2nd ed. 2002 ISBN 1-86064-889-4).
López-Calvo, Ignacio, ed. Alternative Orientalisms in Latin America and Beyond. Newcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007 (ISBN 1-84718-143-0)
López-Calvo, Ignacio, ed. One World Periphery Reads the Other: Knowing the "Oriental" in the Americas and the Iberian Peninsula. Newcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009 (ISBN: 1-4438-1657-4)
López-Calvo, Ignacio, ed. Peripheral Transmodernities: South-to-South Dialogues between the Luso-Hispanic World and "the Orient." Newcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012. (ISBN 1-4438-3714-8)
Lowe, Lisa. Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992 (ISBN 978-0-8014-8195-6).
Macfie, Alexander Lyon. Orientalism. White Plains, NY: Longman, 2002 (ISBN 0-582-42386-4).
MacKenzie, John. Orientalism: History, theory and the arts. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995 (ISBN 0-7190-4578-9), google books.
Murti, Kamakshi P. India: The Seductive and Seduced "Other" of German Orientalism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001 (ISBN 0-313-30857-8).
Noble dreams, wicked pleasures: Orientalism in America, 1870–1930 by Holly Edwards (Editor). Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-691-05004-X).
Oueijan, Naji. The Progress of an Image: The East in English Literature. New York: Peter Lang Publishers, 1996.
Schlicht, Alfred, "Die Araber und Europa", Stuttgart, Kohlhammer, 2008
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Orientalism
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Orientalist paintings
Look up orientalism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The Orientalist Painters
The Orientalists Art Works Gallery
Orientalism 25 Years Later, by Said in 2003
"China in Western Thought and Culture" Dictionary of the History of Ideas, etext, University of Virginia
Brian Whitaker, "Distorting Desire", review, Joseph Abbad, Desiring Arabs, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007, from Al-Bab.com, on Reflections of a Renegade blog site
Martin Kramer, "Edward Saids Splash", from his book, Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America, Washington: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2001, pp. 27–43.
Andre Gingrich, "Frontier Orientalism", Camp Catatonia blog
Orientalism in the "History of Art", All Art
Orientalist art and photography, London Times Online
"Alexander Roubtzoff" (1884–1949), Artistic Association Alexander Roubtzoff
"Edward Said and the Production of Knowledge", CitizenTrack
Articles & Analysis on Orientalists Art Works
Categories: OrientalismTheories of aesthetics
قس ترکی
Oryantalizm ya da diğer adlarıyla Şarkiyatçılık, Şarkiyat; Yakın ve Uzak Doğu toplum ve kültürleri, dilleri ve halklarının incelendiği batı kökenli ve batı merkezli araştırma alanlarının tümüne verilen ortak ad.
Terim, kimi çevrelerce olumsuz bir yan anlamla 18. ve 19.yüzyıllardaki sanayi kapitalizminin gelişme döneminin zihniyeti tarafından şekillendirilmiş Amerikalı ve Avrupalıların Doğu araştırmalarını tanımlamakta kullanılmıştır. Bu anlamda doğuculuk Aydınlanma çağı sonrası Batı Avrupalı beyaz adamın Doğu hakları ve kültürüne yönelik dışarıdan, ötekileştirici, değilleyici ve önyargı dolu yorumlarına işaret etmektedir. Terimi bu bakış açısından ve olumsuz manada kitaplarında -özellikle de Orientalism (1978) kitabında- kullanan en ünlü kişi Edward Saiddir. Bernard Lewis gibi batılı akademisyenler ise Said tarafından kelimeye yüklenen bu olumsuz imaları eleştirmişlerdir.
Konu başlıkları
1 Terimin Anlamı
2 Oryantalizmin Doğuşu
3 Sanat ve Edebiyatta Oryantalizm
4 Ayrıca bakınız
5 Kaynaklar
6 Kitaplar
7 Dış bağlantılar
Terimin Anlamı
Kelimenin latince tabanlı diğer dillerde karşılığı "orientalism"dir. Kökeni ise güneşin doğuşunu ifade eden Latince oriens sözcüğüne dayanmaktadır ve coğrafi manada doğuyu göstermekte kullanılmıştır. Kelimenin içerdiği ve Doğuya yönelik Batılı önyargısının karşıtı olarak Batıya yönelik Doğulu önyargısı anlamında da Oksidentalizm terimi türetilmiştir.
Roma İmparatorluğu döneminde henüz Uzak Doğu kültürleri tam olarak bilinmediğinden günümüzde Orta Doğu denilen bölge Doğu olarak görülmekteydi.
Doğu ile ilgili anlayışlar Batılı kaşiflerin Asyanın içlerine yaptıkları seyahatlerle değişmeye başladı.
Oryantalizmin Doğuşu
18. yüzyıl Aydınlanma Çağı düşünürleri bazen Doğu kültürlerinin, Hristiyan Batı kültürü karşısında üstün olduğunu savunmuşlardır. Örneğin Voltaire, Zerdüştlük inancının, Hristiyanlığa üstün olan rasyonel Deizmi desteklediği gerekçesiyle, araştırılmasını teşvik etmiştir. Bazıları da İslam ülkelerinde (Hristiyan Batının aksine) var olan dini hoşgörüyü ve Mandarin Çinindeki bilginliği övmüşlerdir. Abraham Anquetil-Duperron, Zerdüştlüğün kutsal metinleri olan Avestayı tercüme etmiş, William Jones ise Hint-Avrupa dilleri üzerinde yaptığı araştırmalarda Doğu ve Batı kültürlerinin birbirine karıştığı ilk dönem tarihi bağlantıları ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bununla birlikte bu gelişmeler Fransa ve İngiltere arasındaki Hindistanın kontrolü konusundaki çekişme ortamında ortaya çıkmıştı ve sömürge ülkelerindeki toplulukları daha etkili bir şekilde kontrol etme amacını güdüyordu. James Mill gibi liberal iktisatçılar Doğu ülkelerini, medeniyetlerinin statik ve yozlaşmış oluşu nedeniyle eleştirmekteydi. Karl Marx bile "Asya modeli üretim"in değişmezliğinden söz etmekteydi. Hristiyan evanjelistler ise Doğu dinlerinin geleneklerini hurafe olarak görerek yermekteydiler.
Budizm ve Hinduizm üzerine ilk ciddi Avrupa kökenli araştırmalar Eugene Burnouf ve Max Müller gibi araştırmacılarca yapılmıştı. Aynı dönemde İslamiyetle ilgili ilk ciddi araştırmalar yapılmaya başlandı. 19.yüzyılın ortalarında "Oriental Studies" (Doğu Araştırmaları) akademik bir disiplin olarak ihdas edildi. Yine de akademik araştırmalar geliştikçe, "anlaşılmaz ve hilekar Doğulu" gibi ırkçı tavırlar ve yaygın klişeler de artmaya başladı. Büyük Britanyada da "konuşmaya değmez Türk (Unspeakable Turk)" tabirinin çıkışı aynı döneme rast gelmektedir. Doğu sanatı ve edebiyatı hala "egzotik" ve Klasik Yunan-Roma ideallerine göre düşük görülmekteydi. Doğunun politik ve iktisadi sistemlerinin genellikle feodal "doğu despotizmi" şeklinde olduğu ve kültürel ataletiyle ilerlemeye engel olduğu düşünülmekteydi. Pek çok eleştirel teorisyenler doğuculuğun bu biçimini beyaz adamın daha geniş ve ideolojik sömürgeciliğinin bir parçası olarak görmüşlerdir.
Edward Saidin Görüşleri
Doğu (Orient) tabiri Doğuyu (yani Batı Avrupa dışında kalan Asya ve Afrika coğrafyalarını) Batılı öğrenim, Batılı bilinç ve Batı imparatorluğu alanına taşıyan politik güçlerce çevrelenen temsiller sistemine işaret eder.
Doğu (Orient) Batılı için vardır ve Batı ile ilişkisin içinde ve onun tarafından inşa edilir. O, Batıya yabancı olan diğeri (Other) ve onun altı (inferior) olanı yansıtan bir aynadır.
Oryantalizm, Doğuya ilişkin ideolojik önyargılar ve perspektiflerin hakim olduğu, düzenlenmiş (veya Doğululaştırılmış-Orientalized) yazı, vizyon ve araştırma tarzıdır. O, tüm düşünce ve araştırma alanı tarafından ifade edilen Doğu imajıdır.
Oryantal (Doğulu) bu tip düşünmeyi temsil eden kişidir. Erkeği feminen, güçsüz ama yine de garip bir şekilde Batılı, beyaz kadını tehdit eden kişi olarak tasvir edilir. Doğulu kadın ise çarpıcı derecede egzoteik ve hakimiyet altına alınmaya isteklidir(Batı Asya için "cariye", Doğu Asya için "Madame Butterfly" klişeleri örnek verilebilir). Doğulu kültürel ve ulusal sınırları aşan bir klişedir.
Gizli Oryantalizm bilinçsizdir, Doğunun ne olduğu hakkında belirsiz bir kesinliğe sahiptir. Onun temel içeriği statik ve belirlidir. Doğu ayrı, egzantirik, geri, farklı, tensel ve pasif görülür. Despotizme eğilimli ve ilerlemeden uzaktır. Onun ilerlemesi ve erdemi hakkında Batı ile karşılaştırmalı ve Batılı terimlerle hükme varılır ki o her zaman ötekidir, aşağıdır ve fethe açıktır. Dişil bir nüfuz edilebilirlik ve kaygısız bir uysallık sergiler.
Açık Oryantalizm ise üzerine konuşulan ve eylemde bulunulan şeydir. Doğu hakkında değişen enformasyon ve bilgiyi ve Doğucu düşüncede politik kararları içermektedir. O, gizli oryantalizmin söz ve eylemde ifade edilen halidir.
Sanat ve Edebiyatta Oryantalizm
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingresin Türk Hamamı Tablosu "Le Bain turc," 1862
John Frederick Lewis, Karşılama, 1873
Doğulu Stillerin Taklidi
Rönesansdan 18.yüzyıl Batılı tasarımcılarına kadar Batıda Çin seramikleri taklit edilmeye çalışılmış ve bunda da kısmen başarılı olunmuştur. Chinoiserie terimi Batı Avrupadaki dekorasyonda kullanılan Çin temaları modasını ifade etmektedir.
Ortaçağ, rönesans ve barok sanatlarında Kuzey Afrika Müslümanları ve Türklerin tasvirlerine rastlanmaktadır. Bu eserlerde Doğu egzotik ve yozlaşmış, şehvet düşkünü gösterilmektedir. Viktoryen İngilterenin Hristiyanlığın etkisiyle tensel olan her şeye karşı gösterdiği önyargı ve İslam ordularının Hristiyan dünyayı tehdit ettiği inanışından beslenen İslam düşmanlığı sözkonusu eserlerde bugün çeşitli çevrelerde hâlâ devam eden bir Doğu mitinin doğmasına yol açan temaları kullanılmasının önünü açmıştır.
Fransız Resim Akademisi yöneticisi Jean Auguste Dominique Ingresin Türk Hamamı tablosu Doğuyu erotikleştirmiş ve Batıda herkesçe kabul edilen kadın formlarını genelleştirmiştir.
Sanatta oryantelleştirilmiş imajlar 20.yüzyılın ilk yarısında bile var olmaya devam etmiştir. Bunun örneklerinden biri de Matissenin doğucu çıplak tablolarıdır. Bu eserlerde Doğu ekseriyetle Batı kültürünün bir aynası olarak veya onun gizli ve gayrimeşru yönlerini ifade etme işlevini görmektedir. Gustave Flaubertin Salammbô adlı romanında Kuzey Afrikadaki antik Kartaca antik Romanın önündeki bir engel olarak gösterilmektedir. Kartaja kültürü romanda ahlaken yozlaşmış ve tehlikeli biçimde cezbedici bir erotizmin yayıldığı bir yerdir. Bu roman daha sonraki antik Sami kültürlerine ilişkin portreleri büyük ölçüde etkilemiştir.
Doğucu sanatta sadece Doğunun batı inşası tensel şehvet düşkünlüğü resmedilmemiş aynı zamanda Doğunun kan ve kılıç ile simgelenen despotik ve barbar bir doğaya sahip olduğu şeklindeki doğuşu kökeni oldukça eski bir önyargıya dayalı imgeler de bulunmaktadır.
Ayrıca bakınız
Edward Said
Oksidentalizm
Postkolonyalizm
Egzotizm
Kaynaklar
İngilizce Vikipedi Doğuculuk maddesi
Orientalism
Kitaplar
Edward Said, Freud ve Avrupalı Olmayan, Aram Yay. 2004
Edward Said, Haberlerin Ağında İslam, Babil Yay. 200.
Thierry Hentch, Hayali Doğu, Metis Yayınları, 1996.
V.V.Bartold, Rusya ve Avrupada Oryantalizm, Küre Yayınları, 2004
Alim Arlı, Oryantalizm, Oksidentalizm ve Şerif Mardin, Küre Yayınları, 2004.
Hilmi Yavuz, Modernleşme, Oryantalizm ve İslam, Boyut Yay. 1998.
Ömer Baharoğlu, Oryantalizm, İslam ve Türkler, Toker Yayınları, 2006.
Bryan S. Turner, Marks ve Oryantalizmin Sonu, Kaynak Yayınları, Ocak 2001
Dış bağlantılar
Uluslararası Oryantalizm Sempozyumu-Sunumlar
Hilmi Yavuz, Oryantalizm Üzerine
E.Said, Islam Through Western Eyes
Edward Said Archive
Edward Said in English
Edward Said İngilizce Vikipedi maddesi
Kimi Oryantalistlerin Eserleri
Hayali Doğu
Kategori: Oryantalizm
قس فرانسه
Lorientalisme est un courant littéraire et artistique occidental du xixe siècle.
Il existe cependant un orientalisme humaniste et classique qui remonte à la fin du Moyen Âge et au début de la Renaissance, lorsque les explorations commencèrent, avec par exemple Marco Polo, et qui atteint son apogée avec les turqueries et le goût oriental du XVIIIe siècle baroque puis rococo. Ce goût oriental hérite aussi du contact de lépoque des Croisades avec le monde islamique. Cet article traite donc plutôt de lorientalisme à partir du XIXe siècle. Cest un mouvement qui marque lintérêt de cette époque pour les cultures dAfrique du Nord, turque et arabe, et toutes les régions dominées par lEmpire ottoman, jusquau Caucase. Inspiré par le Moyen-Orient, lart orientaliste ne correspond en France à aucun style particulier et rassemble des artistes aux œuvres et aux personnalités aussi différentes et opposées qu Horace Vernet, Ingres, Eugène Delacroix, Théodore Chassériau, Jean-Léon Gérôme, Eugène Fromentin, Félix Ziem, Alexandre Roubtzoff, jusquà Auguste Renoir (avec son Odalisque de 1884) ou même Matisse et Picasso au tout début du xxe siècle. Cest donc plutôt un thème vaste qui parcourt les différents mouvements picturaux de cette période.
Cet attrait pour lailleurs, la recherche de lexotisme, influença donc la société. Les salons de la bourgeoisie et de la noblesse donnèrent réceptions et bals costumés sur le modèle fantastique et coloré des cours dOrient. Certains personnages fortunés prirent la pose pour faire leur portrait revêtus des habits soyeux seyant à un émir.
L« orientalisme moderne », en peinture, est le prolongement de lorientalisme dit classique, et prend sa source vers les années 1905/1910 avec la création de la villa Abd-el-Tif, et de son prix dès 1907. Il trouve son plein épanouissement après la Première Guerre mondiale pour se prolonger jusquen 1960. Outre cette école, des peintres contemporains des années 1910-1970 ont brillamment repris et continué le motif orientaliste, paysages, nature, scènes de genre, tels Henri Pontoy (1888-1968), Jacques Majorelle (1886-1962), Paul Elie Dubois (1886-1949), Edy Legrand (1892-1970) jusque Gustave Hervigo (1896-1993). Après le démantèlement de lEmpire français et lindépendance de lAlgérie, il ny a plus à proprement parler dÉcole orientaliste, mais des peintres dinspiration orientaliste, tels que les Français Jean-François Arrigoni-Neri (né en 1937), Roman Lazarev, (né en 1938), ou Patrice Laurioz né en 1959, et lAlgérien Hocine Ziani (né en 1953) tout comme les Marocains Ahmed Balili (né en 1955) ou Abdelkrim Belamine (né en 1964). Lorientalisme du xxie siècle « appartient » désormais à ses inspirateurs, artistes en majorité originaires du Maghreb et plus précisément du Maroc.
LOdalisque à lesclave.
Peinture orientaliste du xixe siècle de Dominique Ingres.
Sommaire
1 Quelques thèmes
1.1 Le harem fantasmé
1.2 Le rêve dailleurs, lOrient exotique
1.3 Le désert
2 Liste dartistes orientalistes
2.1 Peinture
2.2 Littérature
3 Voir aussi
3.1 Articles connexes
3.2 Bibliographie
3.3 Liens externes
4 Notes et références
Quelques thèmes
La Mort de Sardanapale par Eugène Delacroix, musée du Louvre, Paris
Le harem fantasmé
À cette époque, la représentation picturale de la nudité est choquante si elle n’est pas justifiée. Or, le harem se veut être lexpression dun ailleurs inconnu. Les mœurs y sont différentes et certaines pratiques tolérées (telles que lesclavage, la polygamie, le bain public, etc.). Cette tolérance entraîne en Europe un phénomène de fascination/répulsion pour le harem (ou sérail), lieu de despotisme (sexuel) par excellence du sultan. En effet, le harem, si éloigné des mœurs et de la culture européennes de lépoque fait lobjet de nombreuses interrogations mais aussi de nombreux fantasmes. Les harems rêvés/fantasmés/imaginés sont souvent peuplés dodalisques lascivement alanguies, offertes, dans les vapeurs du bain... un thème très prisé notamment par Jean-Léon Gérôme.
Le rêve dailleurs
شرقشناسي
غربشناسي
Orientalist, east
المستشرق، عالم باللغات الشرقية، عالم بالأداب الشرقية، الدارس للغات الشرق
oryantal Çalışmalar
Études orientales
orientalistik
estudios orientales
studi orientali
مستشرق، خاور شناس
ادوارد سعید در مقدمهٔ کتاب معروف خود، شرق‌شناسی، این مفهوم را این گونه تعریف می‌کند: «خاورشناسی عبارت از نوعی سبک فکری است که بر مبنای یک تمایز شناختی و شناخت‌شناختی است که میان «شرق» و (غالب موارد) «غرب» قرار دارد.»
پیوند به بیرون
مدخل در لغت‌نامه دهخدا
خاورشناسی در وبگاه الشیعه
منابع
↑ سعید، ادوارد، شرق‌شناسی، ترجمهٔ عبدالرحیم گواهی، تهران: دفتر نشر فرهنگ اسلامی، ۱۳۷۷، صص ۱۵-۱۶
این یک نوشتار خُرد پیرامون فرهنگ است. با گسترش آن به ویکی‌پدیا کمک کنید.
رده‌های صفحه: خاورشناسینظریه‌های زیبایی‌شناسی
از ویکی پدیا
قس عربی
الاستشراق ظاهرة هامة وتعتبر دراسة کافّة البنى الثّقافیّة للشّرق من وجهة نظر غربی، وتستخدم کلمة الاستشراق أیضاً لتدلیل تقلید أو تصویر جانب من الحضارات الشرقیة لدى الرواة والفنانین فی الغرب. المعنى الأخیر هو معنى مهمول ونادر استخدامه، والاستخدام الأغلب هو دراسة الشرق فی العصر الاستعماری ما بین القرن الثامن عشر والتاسع عشر. لذلک صارت کلمة الاستشراق تدل على المفهوم السلبی وتنطوی على التفاسیر المضرّة والقدیمة للحضارات الشرقیة والناس الشرقیین. وجهة النظر هذه مبیَّنة فی کتاب إدوارد سعید الاستشراق (المنشور سنة 1978).
محتویات
1 مراحل الاستشراق
2 تاریخ الاستشراق
3 المستشرقون الحقیقیون
4 وصلات خارجیة
مراحل الاستشراق
من أبرز المراحل الّتی یُقسّم إلیها الاستشراق ما ذهب إلیه الدّکتور المبروک المنصوری فی کتابه "الدّراسات الدّینیّة المعاصرة من المرکزیّة الغربیّة إلى النّسبیّة الثّقافیّة: الاستشراق، القرآن، الهویّة والقیم الدیّنیّة"، إذ قسّم الاستشراق إلى ثلاث مراحل أساسیّة هی: الاستشراق الاستعماری: Colonial Orientalism: ویشمل کلّ ما أٌنتج من بدایة تشکّل هذا التوجّه مع الحرکة الرّومانسیّة الغربیّة إلى حوالى 1960. الاستشراق ما بعد الاستعمارای: Post Colonial Orientalism: وهو التوجّه الّذی تشکّل فی المرحلة ما بعد الاستعماریّة. ویرتکز أساسا على الجانب الثّقافیّ واللّغویّ وقد تلبّس لبوسا جدیدا. الاستشراق الجدید: New Orientalism: وهو التیّار الّذی تشکّل فی بدایة هذا القرن. وقد دشّنه کریستوف لکسنبرغ بکتابه "القراءة السّریانیّة الآرامیّة للقرآن" .
تاریخ الاستشراق
من الصعب أن نکون دقیقین عن أصل الفرق بین الغرب والشرق. لکن ازدهار المسیحیة والإسلام خلق خلاف حضاری کبیر بین أوروبا المسیحیة والشرق وشمال أفریقیا الإسلامی. فی العصور الوسطى کان الأوروبیین المسیحیین یرون المسلمین کأعداء جهنمیین لهم. وکان معرفة الأوروبیین للحضارات أبعد شرقاً من الشرق الإسلامی أکثر خیالاً. ولکن کان هناک معرفة قلیلة للحضارات الهندیة والصینیة من حیث کان تأتی سلع غالیة مثل السیرامیک والحریر. وبکثرة الحملات الاستعماریة والاستکشافیة صار هناک تمییز بین الحضارات الغیر کاتبة، مثل فی أفریقیا والامیرکاتین، والحضارات الکاتبة والمثقفة فی الشرق.
فی القرن الثامن عشر، المفکرین المنورین یصفون أحیاناً جوانب من الحضارات الشرقیة کأحسن من الغرب المسیحی. مثلاً: فولتیر روَّج البحث والدراسة عن الزردشتیة، فی أنها دیانة تدعم الربوبیة العقلانیة أحسن عن المسیحیة. آخرین مجدوا التساهل الدینی فی الشرق الإسلامی بدلاً من الغرب المسیحی، أو منزلة العلم فی الصین والشرق عامةً. مع ترجمة الافیستا واکتشاف اللغات الهندوروبیة، وضِّح الاتصال بین التاریخ الشرقی والغربی القدیم. ولکن صار ذلک الاکتشاف فی وسط المنافسة بین فرنسا وبریطانیا فی الهیمنة على الهند، وکان الاکتشاف متعلق فی فهم الحضارات المستعمرة کی یتحکم علیها المستعمر بسهولة. ولکن الاقتصادیین اللیبیرالیین مثل جیمس میل ذم الأمم الشرقیة بأن الحضارات تلک کانوا ثابتات وفاسدة أو فاسقة. حتى کارل مارکس وصف أسلوب التصنیع الأسیاوی کرافضة التغییر. والمبشرین المسیحیین کانوا یثلبون الدیانات الشرقیة کمجرد خرافات.
فی المعنى الاصطلاحی: علم یقضی بمسائل الشرق ودراسة وتحلیل واقعه، وبعبارة أخرى: هو الدراسات التی تتعلّق بالشرق. أمّا المعنى اللغوی للفظ (شرق) بالإنجلیزیة فهو (بالإنکلیزیة: Orient)، والدول الشرقیة تسمّى (The orient)، والإنسان الشرقی (بالإنکلیزیة: Oriental)، وکلّ من یبحث فی تاریخ الشرق وأحوال أُممه یُدعى (بالإنکلیزیة: Orientalist) أو مستشرق.
الاستشراق ظهور الاستشراق یعتبر الاستشراق حدیث الظهور إلاّ أنّ معرفة الشرق وما یتعلّق به من أفکار فذلک یعود إلى الأزمان الغابرة، ویؤیّد ذلک ما عثر علیه فی التنقیبات من النقوش الأثریة على الأحجار، ثمّ تلت ذلک حرکة الاستشراق فی القرون الوسطى، لتؤکّد ذلک من خلال الوقائع التاریخیة والنصوص الجغرافیة، وکتب الأسفار وغیرها.
أمّا ما هو الزمن الذی أخذ فیه الاستشراق نموّه الحقیقی، وأصبح علماً یُدرّس، فیمکن القول: إنّ المساعی التی بذلها الباحثون من إیطالیا وبریطانیا والبرتغال لدراسة الشرق، کان فی القرن الخامس عشر والسادس عشر المیلادی، وکان من بینهم على سبیل المثال توماس هربرت.
کان هذا الباحث الشاب ذکیاً وماهراً، استطاع الوصول إلى السواحل الجنوبیة لإیران قادماً من الهند، بالتنسیق مع السفیر البریطانی آنذاک، فبدأ بکتابة بحوثه حول إیران والإیرانیین. فی القرن السابع عشر والثامن عشر أخذ الاستشراق بالانتشار حتّى أنّ کتاب (کلستان سعدی) طبع لأوّل مرّة فی أوروبا خلال تلک الفترة.
ومنذ أواخر القرن السابع عشر المیلادی أصبحت مدینتا لندن وباریس من المراکز الرئیسیة فی تدریس الاستشراق، ثمّ توسّع حتّى أصبحت أکثر البلدان الأوربیة فی الوقت الحاضر لدیها معاهد خاصّة بتدریس الاستشراق بجمیع أقسامه، وتخرّج فی کلّ عام أعداداً کبیرة من الأساتذة، الذین یغذّون البحوث والدراسات فی أوروبا فی مجال الاستشراق.
بالمدرسه علمو شی تانی أقسام البحوث والتخصّصات یمکن تقسیم البحوث التی کتبها المستشرقون إلى ما یأتی: التاریخ، الاقتصاد، الجغرافیة، اللغة، الآداب، علم الإنسان، الفنون، الأدیان، الفلسفة، علم الآثار.
أمّا الفروع الموجودة فی الجامعات الغربیة، والتی اختصّت بدراسة تاریخ الأُمم السابقة وأحوالها، فهی: فرع دراسة المصریین، فرع دراسة الآشوریین، فرع دراسة الإیرانیین، فرع دراسة العرب، فرع دراسة الأتراک، فرع دراسة الصینیین، فرع دراسة الهنود، فرع دراسة الیابانیین، فرع دراسة السامیین والسومریین.
ملاحظة: توسّع قسم دراسة أحوال المصریین حتّى شمل جمیع أنحاء القارة الأفریقیة.
المستشرقون الحقیقیون
إنّ الذین جاءوا لدراسة الشرق کانوا أفراداً متفاوتین، فمنهم من جاء بلباس عسکری أو غیر عسکری، أو بصفة أطباء أو معلّمین، لکنّهم فی حقیقة الأمر قساوسة کان هدفهم التنصیر بالدین المسیحی، وکانوا یتردّدون بکثرة على لبنان وسوریة ومصر. ظلّت حرکة الاستشراق موضع شکّ لدى الکثیر، وبسبب هذا الغموض انقسم الناس نحوها إلى فریقین:
الأول: ینظر إلى المستشرقین بعین الاحترام.
والثانی: ینظر إلیه على العکس من ذلک، لأنّه کان من بینهم أُناس مهّدوا للاستعمار الغربی، وکانوا أداة لتسلّط الغرب على الشرق، کما لا یخفى أنّ منهم جماعة دفعهم شوق التعرّف على الشرق وأسراره، وتحمّلوا فی سبیل ذلک کثیراً من الصعوبات والمشاق. وعلى أیّ حال مهما کانت الأغراض والدوافع التی دفعت للاستشراق، فإنّ الاستشراق شیء، والمستشرقین شیء آخر.
وصلات خارجیة
BBC Documentary: on Orientalism-Edward Saidإدوارد سعید یتحدث عن الاستشراق فی فلم وثائقی من إنتاج ال بی بی إن.
^ المبروک المنصوری، الدّراسات الدّینیّة المعاصرة من المرکزیّة الغربیّة إلى النّسبیّة الثّقافیّة: الاستشراق، القرآن، الهویّة والقیم الدّینیّة، تونس، الدّار المتوسّطیّة للنّشر، 2010
هناک المزید من الصور والملفات فی ویکیمیدیا کومنز حول: استشراق
تصنیفات: حرکات ثقافیةنظریات التاریخ استعمار استشراق
قس انگلیسی
Orientalism is a term used by art historians, literary and cultural studies scholars for the imitation or depiction of aspects of Middle Eastern, and East Asian cultures (Eastern cultures) by American and European writers, designers and artists. In particular, Orientalist painting, depicting more specifically "the Middle East", was one of the many specialisms of 19th century Academic art. Since the publication of Edward Saids Orientalism, the term has arguably acquired a negative connotation.
Contents
1 Meaning of the term
2 Orientalizing styles in Europe
3 Orientalist art
3.1 Pre-19th century
3.2 French Orientalism
3.3 British Orientalism
3.4 Elsewhere
3.4.1 Orientalist artists
4 Literature and music
4.1 Examples
4.1.1 Literature
4.1.2 Opera, ballets, musicals
4.1.3 Orchestral works
4.1.4 Shorter musical pieces
4.1.5 Theatre
4.1.6 Photography
4.1.7 Pulp magazines
4.1.8 Films
4.1.9 Comics
5 Eastern views of the West
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
9.1 Mainly on art
9.2 Literature
10 External links
Meaning of the term
"Orientalism" refers to the Orient or East, in contrast to the Occident or West, and often, as seen by the West.
"Orientalism" is widely used in art, to refer to the works of the many Western 19th century artists, who specialized in "Oriental" subjects, often drawing on their travels to Western Asia. Artists as well as scholars were already described as "Orientalists" in the 19th century, especially in France, where the term, with a rather dismissive sense, was largely popularized by the critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary. Such disdain did not prevent the Societé des Peintres Orientalistes ("Society of Orientalist Painters") being founded in 1893, with Jean-Léon Gérôme as honorary president; the word was less often used as a term for artists in 19th century England.
Since the 18th century, "Orientalist" has been the traditional term for a scholar of Oriental studies; however the use in English of "Orientalism" to describe the academic subject of "Oriental studies" is rare; the Oxford English Dictionary cites only one such usage, by Lord Byron in 1812. The academic discipline of Oriental studies is now more often called Asian studies.
In 1978, the Palestinian-American scholar Edward Said published his influential and controversial book, Orientalism, which "would forever redefine" the word; he used the term to describe a pervasive Western tradition, both academic and artistic, of prejudiced outsider interpretations of the East, shaped by the attitudes of European imperialism in the 18th and 19th centuries. Said was critical of both this scholarly tradition and of some modern scholars, particularly Bernard Lewis. Said was mainly concerned with literature in the widest sense, especially French literature, and did not cover visual art and Orientalist painting, though others, notably Linda Nochlin, have tried to extend his analysis to art, "with uneven results". Saids work has given rise to a new discipline called Postcolonialism or Postcolonial studies.
Orientalizing styles in Europe
Further information: Orientalism in early modern France
The Moresque style of Renaissance ornament is a European adaptation of the Islamic arabesque that began in the late 15th century and was to be used in some types of work, such as bookbinding, until almost the present day. Early architectural use of motifs lifted from the Indian subcontinent has sometimes been called "Hindoo style". One of the earliest examples is the façade of Guildhall, London (1788–1789). The style gained momentum in the west with the publication of views of India by William Hodges, and William and Thomas Daniell from about 1795. Examples of "Hindoo" architecture are Sezincote House (c. 1805) in Gloucestershire, built for a nabob returned from Bengal, and the Royal Pavilion in Brighton.
Turquerie, which began as early as the late 15th century, continued until at least the 18th century, and included both the use of "Turkish" styles in the decorative arts, the adoption of Turkish costume at times, and interest in art depicting the Ottoman Empire itself. Venice, the traditional trading partner of the Ottomans, was the earliest centre, with France becoming more prominent in the 18th century.
Chinoiserie is the catch-all term for the fashion for Chinese themes in decoration in Western Europe, beginning in the late 17th century and peaking in waves, especially Rococo Chinoiserie, ca. 1740–1770. From the Renaissance to the 18th century, Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chinese ceramics with only partial success. Early hints of Chinoiserie appeared in the 17th century in nations with active East India companies: England (the British East India Company), Denmark (the Danish East India Company), the Netherlands (the Dutch East India Company) and France (the French East India Company). Tin-glazed pottery made at Delft and other Dutch towns adopted genuine blue-and-white Ming decoration from the early 17th century. Early ceramic wares made at Meissen and other centers of true porcelain imitated Chinese shapes for dishes, vases and teawares (see Chinese export porcelain).
Pleasure pavilions in "Chinese taste" appeared in the formal parterres of late Baroque and Rococo German palaces, and in tile panels at Aranjuez near Madrid. Thomas Chippendales mahogany tea tables and china cabinets, especially, were embellished with fretwork glazing and railings, ca 1753–70. Sober homages to early Xing scholars furnishings were also naturalized, as the tang evolved into a mid-Georgian side table and squared slat-back armchairs that suited English gentlemen as well as Chinese scholars. Not every adaptation of Chinese design principles falls within mainstream "chinoiserie." Chinoiserie media included imitations of lacquer and painted tin (tôle) ware that imitated japanning, early painted wallpapers in sheets, and ceramic figurines and table ornaments. Small pagodas appeared on chimneypieces and full-sized ones in gardens. Kew has a magnificent garden pagoda designed by Sir William Chambers. The Wilhelma (1846) in Stuttgart is an example of Moorish Revival architecture. Leighton House, built for the artist Lord Leighton, has a conventional facade but elaborate Arab-style interiors, including original Islamic tiles and other elements as well as Victorian Orientalizing work.
After 1860, Japonisme, sparked by the importing of Japanese woodblock prints, became an important influence in the western arts. In particular, many modern French artists such as Monet and Degas were influenced by the Japanese style. Mary Cassatt, an American artist who worked in France, used elements of combined patterns, flat planes and shifting perspective of Japanese prints in her own images. The paintings of James McNeill Whistler and his "Peacock Room" demonstrated how he used aspects of Japanese tradition and are some of the finest works of the genre. California architects Greene and Greene were inspired by Japanese elements in their design of the Gamble House and other buildings.
In architecture, Egyptian revival architecture was popular mostly in the early and mid-19th century, and Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture or Moorish Revival architecture, covering a variety of general Islamic or Indian features, in the later part of the century; "Saracenic" referred to styles from Arabic-speaking areas. Both were sometimes used in the Orient itself by colonial governments.
Orientalist art
Pre-19th century
Depictions of Islamic "Moors" and "Turks" (imprecisely named Muslim groups of North Africa and West Asia) can be found in Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque art. In Biblical scenes in Early Netherlandish painting, secondary figures, especially Romans and Jews, were given exotic costumes that distantly reflected the clothes of the Near East. The Three Magi in Nativity scenes were an especial focus for this. Renaissance Venice had a phase of particular interest in depictions of the Ottoman Empire in painting and prints. Gentile Bellini, who travelled to Constantinople and painted the Sultan, and Vittore Carpaccio were the leading painters. By then the depictions were more accurate, with men typically dressed all in white. The depiction of Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting sometimes draws from Orientalist interest, but more often just reflects the prestige these expensive objects had in the period.
Jean-Étienne Liotard (1702–1789) visited Istanbul and painted numerous pastels of Turkish domestic scenes; he also continued to wear Turkish dress for much of the time when back in Europe. The ambitious Scottish 18th century artist Gavin Hamilton found a solution to the problem of using modern dress, considered unheroic and inelegant, in history painting by using Middle Eastern settings with Europeans wearing local costume, as travellers were advised to do. His huge James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra (1758, now Edinburgh) elevates tourism to the heroic, with the two travellers wearing what look very like togas. Many travellers had themselves painted in exotic Eastern dress on their return, including Lord Byron, as did many who had never left Europe, including Madame de Pompadour. Byrons poetry was highly influential in introducing Europe to the heady cocktail of Romanticism in exotic Oriental settings which was to dominate 19th century Oriental art.
French Orientalism
French Orientalist painting was transformed by Napoleons ultimately unsuccessful invasion of Egypt and Syria in 1798-1801, which stimulated great public interest in Egyptology, and was also recorded in subsequent years by Napoleons court painters, especially Baron Gros, although the Middle Eastern campaign was not one on which he accompanied the army. Two of his most successful paintings, Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa (1804) and Battle of Abukir (1806) focus on the Emperor, as he was by then, but include many Egyptian figures, as does the less effective Napoleon at the Battle of the Pyramids (1810). Girodets La Révolte du Caire (1810) was another large and prominent example. A well-illustrated Description de l’Égypte was published by the French Government in twenty volumes between 1809 and 1828, concentrating on antiquities.
Eugène Delacroixs first great success, The Massacre at Chios (1824) was painted before he visited the Greece or the East, and followed his friend Théodore Géricaults The Raft of the Medusa in showing a recent incident in distant parts that had aroused public opinion. Greece was still fighting for independence from the Ottomans, and was effectively as exotic as more Muslim parts of the empire. Delacroix followed up with Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi (1827), commemorating a siege of the previous year, and the Death of Sardanapalus, inspired by Lord Byron, which although set in antiquity has been credited with beginning the mixture of sex, violence, lassitude and exoticism which runs through much French Orientalist painting. In 1832 Delacroix finally visited what is now Algeria, recently conquered by the French, and Morocco, as part of a diplomatic mission to the Sultan of Morocco. He was greatly struck by what he saw, comparing the North African way of life to that of the Ancient Romans, and continued to paint subjects from his trip on his return to France. Like many later Orientalist painters, he was frustrated by the difficulty of sketching subjects including women, and many of his scenes feature warriors on horses, or North African Jews. However he was apparently able to get into the womens quarters or harem of a house to sketch what became The Women of Algiers; few later harem scenes had this claim to authenticity.
When Ingres, the untravelled director of the French Académie de peinture, painted a highly coloured vision of a Turkish bath (illustration, right), he made his eroticized Orient publicly acceptable by his diffuse generalizing of the female forms (who might all have been the same model.) More open sensuality was seen as acceptable in the exotic Orient. This imagery persisted in art into the early 20th century, as evidenced in Matisses orientalist semi-nudes from his Nice period, and his use of Oriental costumes and patterns. Ingres pupil Théodore Chassériau (1819–1856) had already achieved success with his nude The Toilette of Esther (1841, Louvre) and equestrian portrait of Ali-Ben-Hamet, Caliph of Constantine and Chief of the Haractas, Followed by his Escort (1846) before he first visited the East, but in later decades the steamship made travel much easier and increasing numbers of artists travelled to the Middle East and beyond, painting a wide range of Oriental scenes.
In many of these works, they portrayed the Orient as exotic, colorful and sensual, not to say stereotyped. Such works typically concentrated on Near-Eastern Islamic cultures, as those were the ones visited by artists as France became more engaged in North Africa. French artists such as Eugène Delacroix, Jean-Léon Gérôme and Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres painted many works depicting Islamic culture, often including lounging odalisques. They stressed both lassitude and visual spectacle. Other scenes, especially in genre painting, have been seen as either closely comparable to their equivalents set in modern-day or historical Europe, or as also reflecting an Orientalist mind-set in the Saidian sense of the term. Gérôme was the precursor, and often the master, of a number of French painters in the later part of the century whose works were often frankly salacious, frequently featuring scenes in harems, public baths and slave auctions (the last two also available with classical decor), and responsible, with others, for "the equation of Orientalism with the nude in pornographic mode".
British Orientalism
William Holman Hunt, A Street Scene in Cairo; The Lantern-Makers Courtship, 1854-61
Though British political interest in the territories of the unravelling Ottoman Empire was as intense as in France, it was mostly more discreetly exercised. The origins of British Orientalist 19th century painting owe more to religion than military conquest or the search for plausible locations for naked females. The leading British genre painter, Sir David Wilkie was 55 when he travelled to Istanbul and Jerusalem in 1840, dying off Gibraltar during the return voyage. Though not noted as a religious painter, Wilkie made the trip with a Protestant agenda to reform religious painting, as he believed that: "a Martin Luther in painting is as much called for as in theology, to sweep away the abuses by which our divine pursuit is encumbered", by which he meant traditional Christian iconography. He hoped to find more authentic settings and decor for Biblical subjects at their original location, though his death prevented more than studies being made. Other artists including the Pre-Raphaelite William Holman Hunt and David Roberts had similar motivations, giving an emphasis on realism in British Orientalist art from the start. The French artist James Tissot also used contemporary Middle Eastern landscape and decor for Biblical subjects, with little attempt at historicising costumes or other fittings.
William Holman Hunt produced a number of major paintings of Biblical subjects drawing on his Middle Eastern travels, improvising variants of contemporary Arab costume and furnishings to avoid specifically Islamic styles, and also some landscapes and genre subjects. The biblical subjects included The Scapegoat (1856), The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple (1860), and The Shadow of Death (1871). The Miracle of the Holy Fire (1899) was intended as a picturesque satire on the local Eastern Christians, of whom, like most English visitors, Hunt took a very dim view. His A Street Scene in Cairo; The Lantern-Makers Courtship (1854–61) is a rare contemporary narrative scene, as the young man feels his fiancés face, which he is not allowed to see, through her veil, as an Westerner in the background beats his way up the street with his stick. This a rare intrusion of a clearly contemporary figure into a Orientalist scene; mostly they claim the picturesqueness of the historical painting so popular at the time, without the trouble of researching authentic costumes and settings.
When Gérôme exhibited For Sale; Slaves at Cairo at the Royal Academy in London in 1871, it was "widely found offensive", perhaps partly because the British liked to think they had successfully suppressed the slave trade in Egypt, also for cruelty and "representing fleshiness for its own sake". But Rana Kabbani believes that "French Orientalist painting, as exemplified by the works of Gérôme, may appear more sensual, gaudy, gory and sexually explicit than its British counterpart, but this is a difference of style not substance ... Similar strains of fascination and repulsion convulsed their artists" Nonetheless, nudity and violence are more evident in British paintings set in the ancient world, and "the iconography of the odalisque ... the Oriental sex slave whose image is offered up to the viewer as freely as she herself supposedly was to her master - is almost entirely French in origin", though taken up with enthusiasm by Italian and other painters.
John Frederick Lewis, who lived for several years in a traditional mansion in Cairo, painted highly detailed works showing both realistic genre scenes of Middle Eastern life and more idealized scenes in upper class Egyptian interiors with no traces of Western cultural influence yet apparent. His very careful and loving representation of Islamic architecture, furnishings, screens, and costumes set new standards of realism, which influenced other artists, including Gérôme in his later works. He "never painted a nude", and his wife modelled for several of his harem scenes, which, with the rare examples by the classicist painter Lord Leighton, imagine "the harem as a place of almost English domesticity, ... ... womens fully clothed respectability suggests a moral healthiness to go with their natural good looks".
English and French harems
Ingres, Odalisque and slave-girl, 1842
Fernand Cormon, Murder in the Seraglio, 1872
Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904), Pool in a Harem, c. 1876
John Frederick Lewis, The Reception, 1873
Frederick Goodall, A New Light in the Harem, 1884
Other artists concentrated on landscape painting, often of desert scenes, including Richard Dadd and Edward Lear. David Roberts (1796–1864) produced architectural and landscape views, many of antiquities, and published very successful books of lithographs from them.
Elsewhere
Russian Orientalist art was largely concerned with the areas of Central Asia that Russia was conquering during the century, and also in historical painting with the Mongols who had dominated Russia for much of the Middle Ages, who were rarely shown in a good light. Nationalist historical painting in Central Europe and the Balkans dwelt on Turkish oppression, with battle scenes and maidens about to be raped.
The Saidian analysis has not prevented a strong revival of interest in, and collecting of, 19th century Orientalist works since the 1970s, the latter in large part led by Middle Eastern buyers,
Orientalist artists
Gustave Boulanger (1824-88)
Algerian shops, by Louis Comfort Tiffany
Samarkand, by Richard-Karl Karlovitch Zommer
The midday meal, Cairo, by John Frederick Lewis
Eduard Charlemont (1848-1906)
Théodore Chassériau (1819–1856)
Richard Dadd (1817–1886)
Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863)
Ludwig Deutsch (1855–1935)
Alphonse Étienne Dinet
Edmund Dulac
Eugène Fromentin (1820–1876)
Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904)
Gustave Achille Guillaumet (1840-1887)
William Holman Hunt (1827–1910)
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780–1867)
Edward Lear (1812–1888)
Frederic Leighton (1830–1896)
John Frederick Lewis (1805–1876)
Jean-Étienne Liotard (1702–1789)
Edwin Longsden Long, a specialist in Ancient Egyptian scenes
Alberto Pasini (1826–1899)
Théodore Ralli (1852–1909)
David Roberts (painter) (1796–1864)
Alexandre Roubtzoff (1884–1949)
The Discussion (Giulio Rosati)
Giulio Rosati (1858–1917)
James Tissot (1836–1902)
David Wilkie (1785–1841)
Jean-Baptiste van Mour (1671–1731)
Ecem Kafadar (1885–1940)
Edwin Lord Weeks (1849–1903)
Adolf Schreyer (1828–1899)
Literature and music
Authors and composers are not commonly referred to as "Orientalist" in the way that artists are, and relatively few specialized in Oriental topics or styles, or are even best known for their works including them. But many major figures, from Mozart to Flaubert, have produced significant works with Oriental subjects or treatments. For example, Verdis opera Aida (1871) is set in Egypt as portrayed through the content and the visual spectacle. "Aida" depicts a militaristic Egypts tyranny over Ethiopia.
In music, Orientalism may be applied to styles occurring in different periods, such as the alla Turca, used by multiple composers including Mozart and Beethoven. Orientalism is also traceable in music that is considered to have effects of exoticism, including the japonisme in Claude Debussys piano music all the way to the sitar being used in recordings by The Beatles.
In his novel Salammbô, Gustave Flaubert used ancient Carthage in North Africa as a foil to ancient Rome. He portrayed its culture as morally corrupting and suffused with dangerously alluring eroticism. This novel proved hugely influential on later portrayals of ancient Semitic cultures.
The use of the Orient as an exotic backdrop continued in the movies, for instance, those featuring Rudolph Valentino. Later the rich Arab in robes became a more popular theme, especially during the oil crisis of the 1970s. In the 1990s the Arab terrorist became a common villain figure in Western movies.
Examples
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This section may contain excessive, poor or irrelevant examples. You can improve the article by adding more descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples. See Wikipedias guide to writing better articles for further suggestions. (June 2010)
Literature
The Travels of Marco Polo, 13th century
Travels of Sir John Mandeville, 14th century invented account of travels.
Christopher Marlowe, Tamburlaine, 1588/89
John Dryden, Aureng-zebe (1675), a heroic drama in theory based on the life of the reigning Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb
Montesquieu — Persian Letters (Lettres persanes) (1721)
William Thomas Beckford — Vathek (1786)
Robert Southey — Thalaba the Destroyer (1801)
Robert Southey — Curse of Kehama (1810)
Lord Byron — The Bride of Abydos, The Giaour, Don Juan and other works
Samuel Taylor Coleridge — Kubla Khan (published 1816)
Thomas Moore — Lalla-Rookh (published 1817)
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe — Westöstlicher Diwan (1819)
Ralph Waldo Emerson — poem Indian Superstition (1821)
Edgar Allan Poe — Tamerlane (1827), Al Aaraaf (1829), and Israfel (1831)
Victor Hugo — Les Orientales (1829)
Gustave Flaubert — Salammbô (1862)
Eça de Queiroz — The Relic (A Relíquia) (1887) and The Mandarin (O Mandarim) (1889)
Anatole France — Thaïs (1890)
Edward FitzGerald - "translation" or adaptation of the Persian Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859)
Pierre Loti (1850–1923) - highly popular French writer, mostly on his Oriental travels & novels set as far away as Japan and Tahiti
Richard Francis Burton — translation of The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (1885–1888)
Leo Tolstoy — Hadji Murat (1912)
Victor Segalen — René Leys (1922)
Herman Hesse — Siddhartha (1922)
André Malraux — Mans Fate (1934) (La Condition humaine, 1933)
Marguerite Yourcenars Nouvelles Orientales (1938)
Opera, ballets, musicals
Costume design for Aida by Auguste Mariette (1871)
Theatre poster for The Mikado
Antonio Lucio Vivaldi — Juditha triumphans (1716)
Georg Friedrich Händel — Tamerlano (1724) and Serse (1738)
Jean-Philippe Rameau — Les Indes Galantes (1735–1736)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart — Die Entführung aus dem Serail (1782)
Gioachino Rossini — Semiramide (1823)
Giuseppe Verdi — Nabucco (1842)
Jacques Offenbach — Ba-ta-clan (1855)
Georges Bizet — Les Pêcheurs de Perles (1863)
Giuseppe Verdi — Aida (1871)
Emmanuel Chabrier — Fisch-Ton-Kan (1875)
César Cui — The Mandarins Son (1878)
Gilbert and Sullivan — The Mikado (1885)
Alexander Borodin — Prince Igor (1890)
Sidney Jones — The Geisha (1896)
Sidney Jones — San Toy (1899)
Pietro Mascagni — Iris (1899)
Howard Talbot — A Chinese Honeymoon (1896)
Giacomo Puccini — Madama Butterfly (1904)
Richard Strauss — Salome, opera in one act based on Wildes play (1905)
Giacomo Puccini — Turandot (1926)
Franz Lehár - The Land of Smiles (1929)
Sigmund Romberg, Oscar Hammerstein II & Otto Harbach — The Desert Song (1926) and film (1929)
Richard Strauss — Die ägyptische Helena, opera with libretto by Hugo von Hofmannsthal (1929)
Orchestral works
Mily Balakirev — Tamara.
Alexander Borodin — In the Steppes of Central Asia; "Polovetsian Dances" from Prince Igor.
Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov — Caucasian Sketches.
Modest Mussorgsky — "Dance of the Persian Slaves" from Khovanshchina.
Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov — Antar; Scheherezade.
Shorter musical pieces
Mily Balakirev — Islamey
Ludwig van Beethoven—Turkish March from The Ruins of Athens, opus 113 (1811)
Johann Joseph Fux - partita Turcaria, inspired by the 1683 Siege of Vienna by the Turks.
Alexander Glazunov - 5 Novelettes for String Quartet, Op 15
Albert Ketèlbey — In a Persian Market (1920), In a Chinese Temple Garden (1925), and In the Mystic Land of Egypt (1931)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart—Rondo alla turca from Piano Sonata No.11 (K.331)
Sergei Rachmaninoff — Oriental Sketch (1917)
Theatre
Okito performing the floating ball, 1910.
Tobias Bambergs magic stage act as "Okito" (Germany, 1893 – United States, 1908)
Oscar Wildes Salomé (1893, first performed in Paris 1896)
Alexanders mentalism stage act (United States, c. 1890s–1910s)
William Ellsworth Robinsons, magic stage act as "Chung Ling Soo" (United States, 1900–1918)
Photography
Photograph of Cairo by Francis Frith, 1856.
Roger Fenton
Francis Frith
Pulp magazines
Cover of Oriental Stories (Spring 1932).
Oriental Stories: A pulp magazine published 1930–34 by Chicago based Popular Fiction specialising in Orientalist fiction. The title was later changed to The Magic Carpet Magazine.
Films
Intolerance (1916)
Broken Blossoms (1919)
The Sheik (1921)
The Lives of a Bengal Lancer (1935)
The Thief of Bagdad (1940)
My Geisha (1962)
Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984)
Sex and the City 2 (2010)
Comics
The Adventures of Tintin (1929–1983)
The Upside Down Circle by Don Gilbert (1990).
Dragon and Tiger (2008)
Habibi (2011)
Design by Léon Cogniet for a ceiling decoration in the Louvre depicting the 1798 Egyptian Expedition.
Eastern views of the West
Much of Saids criticism of Western "Orientalism" is based on particularizing trends also present in Asian works by Indian, Chinese and Japanese writers and artists, in their views of Western culture and tradition. The term Occidentalism has sometimes been used to refer to negative or stereotypical views of the Western world found in Eastern societies.
Although the core of Saids criticism of the concept of "Orientalism" implies a Western view of Eastern culture, some Eastern artists adopted Western styles that particularize Eastern peoples. The Indian painter Ravi Varma painted several works that are virtually indistinguishable from some Western "Orientalist" images.needed
In the late 20th century many Western cultural themes and images began appearing in Asian art and culture, especially in Japan. English words and phrases are prominent in Japanese advertising and popular culture, and many Japanese anime are written around characters, settings, themes, and mythological figures derived from various Western cultural traditions.needed
See also
Arabist
Black orientalism
Circassian beauties
Exoticism
Occidentalism
Chinoiserie
Black Athena
Notes
^ Tromans, 6
^ from the Latin oriens; Oxford English Dictionary
^ Tromans, 20
^ Harding, 74
^ Tromans, 19
^ Tromans, 24
^ Tromans, 6, 11 (quoted), 23-25
^ The subject of Ives
^ King and Sylvester, throughout
^ Christine Riding, Travellers and Sitters: The Orientalist Portrait, in Tromans, 48-75
^ Harding, 69-70
^ Nochlin, 294-296; Tromans, 128
^ Harding, 81
^ Tromans, 135
^ Tromans, 136
^ Tromans, 14 (quoted), 162-165
^ Nochlin, 289, disputing Rosenthal assertion, and insisting that "there must be some attempt to clarify whose reality we are talking about".
^ Tromans, 16-17 and see index
^ Tromans, 135-136
^ Tromans, 43
^ Tromans, 135
^ Tromans, quote 135; 134 on his wife; generally: 22-32, 80-85, 130-135, and see index
^ Tromans, 135
^ Tromans, 102-125, covers landscape
^ Tromans, 7, 21
^ Beard and Gloag 2005, 128
^ Beard and Gloag 2005, 129
^ Beard and Gloag 2005, 129
^ "Description of contents of album "Alla Turca"". Atmaclassique.com. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
^ Daily Telegraph Review, Guardian review
References
Beard, David and Kenneth Gloag. 2005. Musicology: The Key Concepts. New York: Routledge.
Harding, James, Artistes Pompiers: French Academic Art in the 19th Century, 1979, Academy Editions, ISBN 856704512
C F Ives, "The Great Wave: The Influence of Japanese Woodcuts on French Prints", 1974, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, ISBN 0-87099-098-5
King, Donald and Sylvester, David eds. The Eastern Carpet in the Western World, From the 15th to the 17th century, Arts Council of Great Britain, London, 1983, ISBN 0-7287-0362-9
Mack, Rosamond E. Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art, 1300-1600, University of California Press, 2001 ISBN 0-520-22131-1
Meagher, Jennifer. Orientalism in Nineteenth-Century Art. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. online, accessed April 11, 2011
Nochlin, Linda, The Imaginary Orient, 1983, page numbers from reprint in The nineteenth-century visual culture reader, google books, a reaction to Rosenthals exhibition and book.
Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978 ISBN 0-394-74067-X).
Tromans, Nicholas, and others, The Lure of the East, British Orientalist Painting, 2008, Tate Publishing, ISBN 978-1-85437-733-3
Further reading
Springer, Simon. 2011, Culture of violence or violent Orientalism? Neoliberalisation and imagining the savage other in post-transitional Cambodia. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 34 (3), 305-319.
Weir, David. American Orient: Imagining the East From the Colonial Era Through the Twentieth Century (University of Massachusetts Press; 2011) 304 pages;
Mainly on art
Jean-Marc Aractingi,"Peintres Orientalistes" Editions Vues dOrient,Paris,2003
Peltre, Christine. Orientalism in Art. New York: Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.), 1998 (ISBN 0-7892-0459-2).
Rosenthal, Donald A. Orientalism: The Near East in French Painting, 1800–1880. Rochester, N.Y.: Memorial Art Gallery of the University of Rochester, 1982.
Stevens, Mary Anne, ed. The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse: European Painters in North Africa and the Near East. Exhibition catalogue. London: Royal Academy of Arts, 1984
Benjamin, Roger Orientalist Aesthetics, Art, Colonialism and French North Africa: 1880-1930, U. of California Press, 2003
Literature
Halliday, Fred. "Orientalism and Its Critics", British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 20, No. 2. (1993), pp. 145–163.
Irwin, Robert. For lust of knowing: The Orientalists and their enemies. London: Penguin/Allen Lane, 2006 (ISBN 0-7139-9415-0)
Kabbani, Rana. Imperial Fictions: Europes Myths of Orient. London: Pandora Press, 1994 (ISBN 0-04-440911-7).
Klein, Christina. Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003 (ISBN 0-520-22469-8; paperback, ISBN 0-520-23230-5).
Knight, Nathaniel. "Grigorev in Orenburg, 1851–1862: Russian Orientalism in the Service of Empire?", Slavic Review, Vol. 59, No. 1. (Spring, 2000), pp. 74–100.
Kontje, Todd. German Orientalisms. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 (ISBN 0-472-11392-5).
Little, Douglas. American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Since 1945. (2nd ed. 2002 ISBN 1-86064-889-4).
López-Calvo, Ignacio, ed. Alternative Orientalisms in Latin America and Beyond. Newcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007 (ISBN 1-84718-143-0)
López-Calvo, Ignacio, ed. One World Periphery Reads the Other: Knowing the "Oriental" in the Americas and the Iberian Peninsula. Newcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009 (ISBN: 1-4438-1657-4)
López-Calvo, Ignacio, ed. Peripheral Transmodernities: South-to-South Dialogues between the Luso-Hispanic World and "the Orient." Newcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012. (ISBN 1-4438-3714-8)
Lowe, Lisa. Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992 (ISBN 978-0-8014-8195-6).
Macfie, Alexander Lyon. Orientalism. White Plains, NY: Longman, 2002 (ISBN 0-582-42386-4).
MacKenzie, John. Orientalism: History, theory and the arts. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995 (ISBN 0-7190-4578-9), google books.
Murti, Kamakshi P. India: The Seductive and Seduced "Other" of German Orientalism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001 (ISBN 0-313-30857-8).
Noble dreams, wicked pleasures: Orientalism in America, 1870–1930 by Holly Edwards (Editor). Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-691-05004-X).
Oueijan, Naji. The Progress of an Image: The East in English Literature. New York: Peter Lang Publishers, 1996.
Schlicht, Alfred, "Die Araber und Europa", Stuttgart, Kohlhammer, 2008
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Orientalism
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Orientalist paintings
Look up orientalism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The Orientalist Painters
The Orientalists Art Works Gallery
Orientalism 25 Years Later, by Said in 2003
"China in Western Thought and Culture" Dictionary of the History of Ideas, etext, University of Virginia
Brian Whitaker, "Distorting Desire", review, Joseph Abbad, Desiring Arabs, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007, from Al-Bab.com, on Reflections of a Renegade blog site
Martin Kramer, "Edward Saids Splash", from his book, Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America, Washington: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2001, pp. 27–43.
Andre Gingrich, "Frontier Orientalism", Camp Catatonia blog
Orientalism in the "History of Art", All Art
Orientalist art and photography, London Times Online
"Alexander Roubtzoff" (1884–1949), Artistic Association Alexander Roubtzoff
"Edward Said and the Production of Knowledge", CitizenTrack
Articles & Analysis on Orientalists Art Works
Categories: OrientalismTheories of aesthetics
قس ترکی
Oryantalizm ya da diğer adlarıyla Şarkiyatçılık, Şarkiyat; Yakın ve Uzak Doğu toplum ve kültürleri, dilleri ve halklarının incelendiği batı kökenli ve batı merkezli araştırma alanlarının tümüne verilen ortak ad.
Terim, kimi çevrelerce olumsuz bir yan anlamla 18. ve 19.yüzyıllardaki sanayi kapitalizminin gelişme döneminin zihniyeti tarafından şekillendirilmiş Amerikalı ve Avrupalıların Doğu araştırmalarını tanımlamakta kullanılmıştır. Bu anlamda doğuculuk Aydınlanma çağı sonrası Batı Avrupalı beyaz adamın Doğu hakları ve kültürüne yönelik dışarıdan, ötekileştirici, değilleyici ve önyargı dolu yorumlarına işaret etmektedir. Terimi bu bakış açısından ve olumsuz manada kitaplarında -özellikle de Orientalism (1978) kitabında- kullanan en ünlü kişi Edward Saiddir. Bernard Lewis gibi batılı akademisyenler ise Said tarafından kelimeye yüklenen bu olumsuz imaları eleştirmişlerdir.
Konu başlıkları
1 Terimin Anlamı
2 Oryantalizmin Doğuşu
3 Sanat ve Edebiyatta Oryantalizm
4 Ayrıca bakınız
5 Kaynaklar
6 Kitaplar
7 Dış bağlantılar
Terimin Anlamı
Kelimenin latince tabanlı diğer dillerde karşılığı "orientalism"dir. Kökeni ise güneşin doğuşunu ifade eden Latince oriens sözcüğüne dayanmaktadır ve coğrafi manada doğuyu göstermekte kullanılmıştır. Kelimenin içerdiği ve Doğuya yönelik Batılı önyargısının karşıtı olarak Batıya yönelik Doğulu önyargısı anlamında da Oksidentalizm terimi türetilmiştir.
Roma İmparatorluğu döneminde henüz Uzak Doğu kültürleri tam olarak bilinmediğinden günümüzde Orta Doğu denilen bölge Doğu olarak görülmekteydi.
Doğu ile ilgili anlayışlar Batılı kaşiflerin Asyanın içlerine yaptıkları seyahatlerle değişmeye başladı.
Oryantalizmin Doğuşu
18. yüzyıl Aydınlanma Çağı düşünürleri bazen Doğu kültürlerinin, Hristiyan Batı kültürü karşısında üstün olduğunu savunmuşlardır. Örneğin Voltaire, Zerdüştlük inancının, Hristiyanlığa üstün olan rasyonel Deizmi desteklediği gerekçesiyle, araştırılmasını teşvik etmiştir. Bazıları da İslam ülkelerinde (Hristiyan Batının aksine) var olan dini hoşgörüyü ve Mandarin Çinindeki bilginliği övmüşlerdir. Abraham Anquetil-Duperron, Zerdüştlüğün kutsal metinleri olan Avestayı tercüme etmiş, William Jones ise Hint-Avrupa dilleri üzerinde yaptığı araştırmalarda Doğu ve Batı kültürlerinin birbirine karıştığı ilk dönem tarihi bağlantıları ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bununla birlikte bu gelişmeler Fransa ve İngiltere arasındaki Hindistanın kontrolü konusundaki çekişme ortamında ortaya çıkmıştı ve sömürge ülkelerindeki toplulukları daha etkili bir şekilde kontrol etme amacını güdüyordu. James Mill gibi liberal iktisatçılar Doğu ülkelerini, medeniyetlerinin statik ve yozlaşmış oluşu nedeniyle eleştirmekteydi. Karl Marx bile "Asya modeli üretim"in değişmezliğinden söz etmekteydi. Hristiyan evanjelistler ise Doğu dinlerinin geleneklerini hurafe olarak görerek yermekteydiler.
Budizm ve Hinduizm üzerine ilk ciddi Avrupa kökenli araştırmalar Eugene Burnouf ve Max Müller gibi araştırmacılarca yapılmıştı. Aynı dönemde İslamiyetle ilgili ilk ciddi araştırmalar yapılmaya başlandı. 19.yüzyılın ortalarında "Oriental Studies" (Doğu Araştırmaları) akademik bir disiplin olarak ihdas edildi. Yine de akademik araştırmalar geliştikçe, "anlaşılmaz ve hilekar Doğulu" gibi ırkçı tavırlar ve yaygın klişeler de artmaya başladı. Büyük Britanyada da "konuşmaya değmez Türk (Unspeakable Turk)" tabirinin çıkışı aynı döneme rast gelmektedir. Doğu sanatı ve edebiyatı hala "egzotik" ve Klasik Yunan-Roma ideallerine göre düşük görülmekteydi. Doğunun politik ve iktisadi sistemlerinin genellikle feodal "doğu despotizmi" şeklinde olduğu ve kültürel ataletiyle ilerlemeye engel olduğu düşünülmekteydi. Pek çok eleştirel teorisyenler doğuculuğun bu biçimini beyaz adamın daha geniş ve ideolojik sömürgeciliğinin bir parçası olarak görmüşlerdir.
Edward Saidin Görüşleri
Doğu (Orient) tabiri Doğuyu (yani Batı Avrupa dışında kalan Asya ve Afrika coğrafyalarını) Batılı öğrenim, Batılı bilinç ve Batı imparatorluğu alanına taşıyan politik güçlerce çevrelenen temsiller sistemine işaret eder.
Doğu (Orient) Batılı için vardır ve Batı ile ilişkisin içinde ve onun tarafından inşa edilir. O, Batıya yabancı olan diğeri (Other) ve onun altı (inferior) olanı yansıtan bir aynadır.
Oryantalizm, Doğuya ilişkin ideolojik önyargılar ve perspektiflerin hakim olduğu, düzenlenmiş (veya Doğululaştırılmış-Orientalized) yazı, vizyon ve araştırma tarzıdır. O, tüm düşünce ve araştırma alanı tarafından ifade edilen Doğu imajıdır.
Oryantal (Doğulu) bu tip düşünmeyi temsil eden kişidir. Erkeği feminen, güçsüz ama yine de garip bir şekilde Batılı, beyaz kadını tehdit eden kişi olarak tasvir edilir. Doğulu kadın ise çarpıcı derecede egzoteik ve hakimiyet altına alınmaya isteklidir(Batı Asya için "cariye", Doğu Asya için "Madame Butterfly" klişeleri örnek verilebilir). Doğulu kültürel ve ulusal sınırları aşan bir klişedir.
Gizli Oryantalizm bilinçsizdir, Doğunun ne olduğu hakkında belirsiz bir kesinliğe sahiptir. Onun temel içeriği statik ve belirlidir. Doğu ayrı, egzantirik, geri, farklı, tensel ve pasif görülür. Despotizme eğilimli ve ilerlemeden uzaktır. Onun ilerlemesi ve erdemi hakkında Batı ile karşılaştırmalı ve Batılı terimlerle hükme varılır ki o her zaman ötekidir, aşağıdır ve fethe açıktır. Dişil bir nüfuz edilebilirlik ve kaygısız bir uysallık sergiler.
Açık Oryantalizm ise üzerine konuşulan ve eylemde bulunulan şeydir. Doğu hakkında değişen enformasyon ve bilgiyi ve Doğucu düşüncede politik kararları içermektedir. O, gizli oryantalizmin söz ve eylemde ifade edilen halidir.
Sanat ve Edebiyatta Oryantalizm
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingresin Türk Hamamı Tablosu "Le Bain turc," 1862
John Frederick Lewis, Karşılama, 1873
Doğulu Stillerin Taklidi
Rönesansdan 18.yüzyıl Batılı tasarımcılarına kadar Batıda Çin seramikleri taklit edilmeye çalışılmış ve bunda da kısmen başarılı olunmuştur. Chinoiserie terimi Batı Avrupadaki dekorasyonda kullanılan Çin temaları modasını ifade etmektedir.
Ortaçağ, rönesans ve barok sanatlarında Kuzey Afrika Müslümanları ve Türklerin tasvirlerine rastlanmaktadır. Bu eserlerde Doğu egzotik ve yozlaşmış, şehvet düşkünü gösterilmektedir. Viktoryen İngilterenin Hristiyanlığın etkisiyle tensel olan her şeye karşı gösterdiği önyargı ve İslam ordularının Hristiyan dünyayı tehdit ettiği inanışından beslenen İslam düşmanlığı sözkonusu eserlerde bugün çeşitli çevrelerde hâlâ devam eden bir Doğu mitinin doğmasına yol açan temaları kullanılmasının önünü açmıştır.
Fransız Resim Akademisi yöneticisi Jean Auguste Dominique Ingresin Türk Hamamı tablosu Doğuyu erotikleştirmiş ve Batıda herkesçe kabul edilen kadın formlarını genelleştirmiştir.
Sanatta oryantelleştirilmiş imajlar 20.yüzyılın ilk yarısında bile var olmaya devam etmiştir. Bunun örneklerinden biri de Matissenin doğucu çıplak tablolarıdır. Bu eserlerde Doğu ekseriyetle Batı kültürünün bir aynası olarak veya onun gizli ve gayrimeşru yönlerini ifade etme işlevini görmektedir. Gustave Flaubertin Salammbô adlı romanında Kuzey Afrikadaki antik Kartaca antik Romanın önündeki bir engel olarak gösterilmektedir. Kartaja kültürü romanda ahlaken yozlaşmış ve tehlikeli biçimde cezbedici bir erotizmin yayıldığı bir yerdir. Bu roman daha sonraki antik Sami kültürlerine ilişkin portreleri büyük ölçüde etkilemiştir.
Doğucu sanatta sadece Doğunun batı inşası tensel şehvet düşkünlüğü resmedilmemiş aynı zamanda Doğunun kan ve kılıç ile simgelenen despotik ve barbar bir doğaya sahip olduğu şeklindeki doğuşu kökeni oldukça eski bir önyargıya dayalı imgeler de bulunmaktadır.
Ayrıca bakınız
Edward Said
Oksidentalizm
Postkolonyalizm
Egzotizm
Kaynaklar
İngilizce Vikipedi Doğuculuk maddesi
Orientalism
Kitaplar
Edward Said, Freud ve Avrupalı Olmayan, Aram Yay. 2004
Edward Said, Haberlerin Ağında İslam, Babil Yay. 200.
Thierry Hentch, Hayali Doğu, Metis Yayınları, 1996.
V.V.Bartold, Rusya ve Avrupada Oryantalizm, Küre Yayınları, 2004
Alim Arlı, Oryantalizm, Oksidentalizm ve Şerif Mardin, Küre Yayınları, 2004.
Hilmi Yavuz, Modernleşme, Oryantalizm ve İslam, Boyut Yay. 1998.
Ömer Baharoğlu, Oryantalizm, İslam ve Türkler, Toker Yayınları, 2006.
Bryan S. Turner, Marks ve Oryantalizmin Sonu, Kaynak Yayınları, Ocak 2001
Dış bağlantılar
Uluslararası Oryantalizm Sempozyumu-Sunumlar
Hilmi Yavuz, Oryantalizm Üzerine
E.Said, Islam Through Western Eyes
Edward Said Archive
Edward Said in English
Edward Said İngilizce Vikipedi maddesi
Kimi Oryantalistlerin Eserleri
Hayali Doğu
Kategori: Oryantalizm
قس فرانسه
Lorientalisme est un courant littéraire et artistique occidental du xixe siècle.
Il existe cependant un orientalisme humaniste et classique qui remonte à la fin du Moyen Âge et au début de la Renaissance, lorsque les explorations commencèrent, avec par exemple Marco Polo, et qui atteint son apogée avec les turqueries et le goût oriental du XVIIIe siècle baroque puis rococo. Ce goût oriental hérite aussi du contact de lépoque des Croisades avec le monde islamique. Cet article traite donc plutôt de lorientalisme à partir du XIXe siècle. Cest un mouvement qui marque lintérêt de cette époque pour les cultures dAfrique du Nord, turque et arabe, et toutes les régions dominées par lEmpire ottoman, jusquau Caucase. Inspiré par le Moyen-Orient, lart orientaliste ne correspond en France à aucun style particulier et rassemble des artistes aux œuvres et aux personnalités aussi différentes et opposées qu Horace Vernet, Ingres, Eugène Delacroix, Théodore Chassériau, Jean-Léon Gérôme, Eugène Fromentin, Félix Ziem, Alexandre Roubtzoff, jusquà Auguste Renoir (avec son Odalisque de 1884) ou même Matisse et Picasso au tout début du xxe siècle. Cest donc plutôt un thème vaste qui parcourt les différents mouvements picturaux de cette période.
Cet attrait pour lailleurs, la recherche de lexotisme, influença donc la société. Les salons de la bourgeoisie et de la noblesse donnèrent réceptions et bals costumés sur le modèle fantastique et coloré des cours dOrient. Certains personnages fortunés prirent la pose pour faire leur portrait revêtus des habits soyeux seyant à un émir.
L« orientalisme moderne », en peinture, est le prolongement de lorientalisme dit classique, et prend sa source vers les années 1905/1910 avec la création de la villa Abd-el-Tif, et de son prix dès 1907. Il trouve son plein épanouissement après la Première Guerre mondiale pour se prolonger jusquen 1960. Outre cette école, des peintres contemporains des années 1910-1970 ont brillamment repris et continué le motif orientaliste, paysages, nature, scènes de genre, tels Henri Pontoy (1888-1968), Jacques Majorelle (1886-1962), Paul Elie Dubois (1886-1949), Edy Legrand (1892-1970) jusque Gustave Hervigo (1896-1993). Après le démantèlement de lEmpire français et lindépendance de lAlgérie, il ny a plus à proprement parler dÉcole orientaliste, mais des peintres dinspiration orientaliste, tels que les Français Jean-François Arrigoni-Neri (né en 1937), Roman Lazarev, (né en 1938), ou Patrice Laurioz né en 1959, et lAlgérien Hocine Ziani (né en 1953) tout comme les Marocains Ahmed Balili (né en 1955) ou Abdelkrim Belamine (né en 1964). Lorientalisme du xxie siècle « appartient » désormais à ses inspirateurs, artistes en majorité originaires du Maghreb et plus précisément du Maroc.
LOdalisque à lesclave.
Peinture orientaliste du xixe siècle de Dominique Ingres.
Sommaire
1 Quelques thèmes
1.1 Le harem fantasmé
1.2 Le rêve dailleurs, lOrient exotique
1.3 Le désert
2 Liste dartistes orientalistes
2.1 Peinture
2.2 Littérature
3 Voir aussi
3.1 Articles connexes
3.2 Bibliographie
3.3 Liens externes
4 Notes et références
Quelques thèmes
La Mort de Sardanapale par Eugène Delacroix, musée du Louvre, Paris
Le harem fantasmé
À cette époque, la représentation picturale de la nudité est choquante si elle n’est pas justifiée. Or, le harem se veut être lexpression dun ailleurs inconnu. Les mœurs y sont différentes et certaines pratiques tolérées (telles que lesclavage, la polygamie, le bain public, etc.). Cette tolérance entraîne en Europe un phénomène de fascination/répulsion pour le harem (ou sérail), lieu de despotisme (sexuel) par excellence du sultan. En effet, le harem, si éloigné des mœurs et de la culture européennes de lépoque fait lobjet de nombreuses interrogations mais aussi de nombreux fantasmes. Les harems rêvés/fantasmés/imaginés sont souvent peuplés dodalisques lascivement alanguies, offertes, dans les vapeurs du bain... un thème très prisé notamment par Jean-Léon Gérôme.
Le rêve dailleurs
شرقشناسي
غربشناسي
Orientalist, east
المستشرق، عالم باللغات الشرقية، عالم بالأداب الشرقية، الدارس للغات الشرق
oryantal Çalışmalar
Études orientales
orientalistik
estudios orientales
studi orientali
مستشرق، خاور شناس
مترادف:
شرقشناسي
متضاد:
غربشناسي
نمایش تصویر
اطلاعات بیشتر واژه
الگوی تکیه:
WWWWS
نقش دستوری:
اسم
آواشناسی:
xAvarSenAsi
منبع:
واژه‌نامه آزاد
معادل ابجد:
1228
شمارگان هجا:
5
دیگر زبان ها
انگلیسی
Orientalist | east
ترکی
oryantal Çalışmalar
فرانسوی
Études orientales
آلمانی
orientalistik
اسپانیایی
estudios orientales
ایتالیایی
studi orientali
عربی
المستشرق | عالم باللغات الشرقية , عالم بالأداب الشرقية , الدارس للغات الشرق
تشریح نگارش (هوش مصنوعی)
کلمه "خاورشناسی" به معنای مطالعه و بررسی فرهنگ‌ها، زبان‌ها، تاریخ و جغرافیای کشورهای شرق و به‌ویژه کشورهای خاورمیانه است. در نگارش و استفاده از این واژه، چند نکته قواعدی و نگارشی وجود دارد:
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جداسازی و ترکیب واژه‌ها: "خاور" و "شناسی" دو بخش اصلی این کلمه هستند که به صورت ترکیبی نوشته می‌شوند. توجه داشته باشید که این واژه به صورت یک پارچه و بدون فاصله و با حروف کوچک نوشته می‌شود.
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علامت‌گذارها: اگر این واژه در جملات استفاده شود، مانند دیگر واژه‌ها باید با دقت به جملات و علامت‌گذاری توجه کنید. پس از این واژه می‌توان از ویرگول، نقطه و سایر علامت‌ها استفاده کرد.
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جنس و نوع کلمه: "خاورشناسی" یک اسم خاص است و به عنوان یک رشته علمی شناخته می‌شود. در نگارش، به زیرشاخه‌های این علم و مفاهیم مرتبط با آن اشاره کنید.
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نحو و ترتیب کلمات: در جملات، سعی کنید ترتیب واژه‌ها درست و منسجم باشد. به عنوان مثال: "خاورشناسی شامل مطالعه تاریخ و فرهنگ کشورهای خاورمیانه است."
- استفاده از معادل‌ها: هنگام نگارش، ممکن است بخواهید از معادل‌های انگلیسی یا دیگر زبان‌ها برای این واژه استفاده کنید. مثلاً "Oriental Studies" معادل انگلیسی خاورشناسی است.
با رعایت این نکات، میتوانید به درستی از واژه "خاورشناسی" در نگارش‌های مختلف بهره ببرید.
مثال برای واژه (هوش مصنوعی)
البته! در اینجا چند جمله با استفاده از کلمه "خاورشناسی" ارائه می‌شود:
- خاورشناسی به عنوان یک رشته دانشگاهی به مطالعه فرهنگ‌ها، زبان‌ها و تمدن‌های کشورهای شرق می‌پردازد.
- استاد زبان‌شناسی در مقاله‌اش به اهمیت خاورشناسی در فهم بهتر تاریخ منطقه‌ی خاورمیانه اشاره کرد.
- دانشجویان خاورشناسی در طول تحصیل خود با متون کهن و سنت‌های فرهنگی کشورهای آسیایی آشنا می‌شوند.
- خاورشناسی نه تنها به مطالعه جغرافیایی، بلکه به درک عمیق‌تری از روابط اجتماعی و اقتصادی میان ملل شرقی نیاز دارد.
- کنفرانس بین‌المللی خاورشناسی امسال در تهران برگزار خواهد شد و محققان از سرتاسر دنیا در آن شرکت می‌کنند.
اگر نیاز به مثال‌های بیشتری دارید یا موضوع خاصی مد نظر شماست، خوشحال می‌شوم کمک کنم!
واژگان مرتبط: مستشرق، خاور شناس