ادوین هابل
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edwin hubble
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ادوین هابل
معنی:
دوین پاول هابل (به انگلیسی: Edwin Powell Hubble)، دانشمند اخترشناس آمریکایی (۱۸۸۹ - ۱۹۵۳) کسی بود که ثابت کرد برخی از سحابی‌های بیضی شکلی که در آسمان دیده می‌شوند، کهکشان‌هایی هستند که در فاصله‌ای بسیار دور از کهکشان ما قرار دارند.
او کسی است که اولین طبقه بندی را از شکل کهکشانها ارائه کرد. طبقه بندی او تا مدتها توسط اخترشناسان مورد استفاده بود. ادوین هابل برای اولین بار رابطه‌ای میان سرعت و فاصلهٔ کهکشانها بدست آورد که می‌توانست مقیاسی از عالم را نتیجه دهد.
آثار عمیق هابل بر کیهان‌شناسی رصدی غیر قابل انکار است. همانگونه که نیکولاس کپرنیک در شناخت منظومه شمسی و ویلیام هرشل در شناخت کهکشان راه شیری تأثیر گذاشتند، ادوین هابل بر شناخت ما از عالم تأثیر گذاشت.
هابل با مشاهدات خود عنوان کرد که بسیاری از اجرام سحابی گونی که مشاهده می‌شوند، اجرامی هستند که بسیار بزرگ‌تر از اجرام داخل کهکشان راه شیری اند. او این اجرام را «جهان‌های جزیره‌ای» نامیده بود. در سال ۱۹۳۲ او موفق شد تا یک خوشهٔ کروی را در خارج از راه شیری و در ام۳۱ کشف کند و ثابت کرد که ام۳۱ کهکشانی مثل کهکشان ماست.
ادامهٔ پژوهش‌های هابل منجر به گشودن دریچه‌هایی جدید به کیهان‌شناسی شد: انبساط عالم، سن عالم، مهبانگ و چیزهای دیگر.
هابل از طریق مشاهدات خود و بررسی انتقال به سرخ کهکشانها و مقایسهٔ آنها با یکدیگر به این نتیجه رسید که «کهکشان‌های دورتر با سرعت بیشتری در حال دور شدن هستند.» این نتیجه را امروز به عنوان «قانون هابل» می‌شناسیم.
به پاس خدمات و تلاشهای علمی ادوین هابل در اخترشناسی و خصوصا کیهان شناسی، ۳۰ سال بعد از مرگش، اولین تلسکوپ فضایی تاریخ را به یاد او «هابل» نامیدند.
منابع
Wikipedia contributors, "Edwin Hubble," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia,
این یک نوشتار خُرد پیرامون افراد است. با گسترش آن به ویکی‌پدیا کمک کنید.
در ویکی‌انبار پرونده‌هایی دربارهٔ ادوین هابل موجود است.
مراجع کتابداری
برگه‌دان مجازی: 76485418
رده‌ها: ادوین هاب لافسران ارتش ایالات متحده دانش‌آموختگان دانشگاه شیکاگودرگذشتگان ۱۹۵۳ (میلادی)درگذشتگان به علت سکته دریافت‌کننده مدال دلیری نیروهای نظامی ایالات متحده آمریکازادگان ۱۸۸۹ (میلادی)ستاره‌شناسان اهل آمریکاشخصیت‌های نظامی آمریکا در جنگ جهانی اول فیزیک‌دانان اهل آمریکا کاشفان سیارک ندانم‌گرایان اهل آمریکا نظامیان ایالات متحده آمریکا در جنگ جهانی دوم نظامیان ایالات متحده در جنگ جهانی دوم
قس عربی
إدوین بویل هابل (Edwin Powell Hubble) (1889-1953). فلکی أمریکی أثبت وجود مجرات أخرى عدا المجرة اللبنیة. ولد فی مارشفیلد بولایة میسوری بالولایات المتحدة الأمریکیة، اشتغل ما بین عامی 1914-1917 فی مرصد یورکس بجامعة شیکاغو ثم بمرصد جبل ویلسون سنة 1919 وأخیراً بمرصد جبل بالومَرْ (Mart-Paloner) سنة 1948 وفیه قام بتوجیه الأبحاث الجاریة بواسطة التلسکوب.
محتویات
1 السیره الشخصیة
2 الاکتشافات
3 التکریم
4 انظر أیضا
5 مراجع وملاحظات
6 قراءة إضافیة
7 وصلات خارجیة
السیره الشخصیة
عاش فی شیکاغو ودرس الثانویة فیها, وکان طالبا عادیا وکان محبا للریاضة ومتفوقا فی القفز العالی بدأ دراسته الأکادیمیة فی دراسة القانون فی جامعة اوکسفورد فی بریطانیا إلا انه ترک الدراسة هناک معتقدا بأن هذه الدراسة لا ترضی طموحه حیث کانت رغبته فی دراسة الفلک.
الاکتشافات
لم تکن لدى علماء الفلک آنذاک طریقة لحساب عمر الکون، ولم یکونوا واثقین من وجود أی شیء أبعد من مجرة درب التبانة (أو الطریق اللبنی) الذی تکوّن المجموعة الشمسیة جزءا منه، ولکن هابل اکتشف فی عام 1924 أن هناک المزید من المجرات (فهناک فی الحقیقة الملیارات من المجرات), حیث أثبت أن الکون یتمدد مع الوقت بقیمة ثابتة, وهذا ما تقول به أهم نظریات نشأة الکون وهی نظریة الانفجار العظیم، حیث صححت صورة الکون الساکن ذی الحجم المحدود المستقر.
شهرة "هابل" أتت من کونه أول من إکتشف أن مجرة أندرومیدا (بالتصلیف الفلکی M31) تقع خارج مجرتنا ولا تتیعنا وبأنها مجرة مستقلة عن مجرتنا تماما ً. وقد استغل هابل ظاهرة الانزیاح الأحمر لطیف المجرات على أنه ظاهرة دوبلر ووجد أن الانزیاح الأحمر یتزاید بتزاید بعد المجرات عن الأرض. وهذا معناه أن المجرات لیست ثابتة فی الکون، بل کلها یتحرک ویبتعد عنا. بذلک أثبت أن المجرات تتباعد عن بعضها البعض بسرعة متناسبة مع ابتعادها، وسمیت هذه العلاقة بقانون هابل سنة 1929. هذا القانون ساهم کثیراً فی اعتماد نظریة الانفجار الکبیر.
یقدر معامل هابل لتمدد الکون 71 کیلومتر فی الثانیة لکل ملیون بارزیک، حیث 1 بارزیک = 3و3 ملیون سنة ضوئیة.
باستخدام معامل هابل استطاع العلماء تقدیر عمر الکون منذ الانفجار العظیم ب 13 إلى 5و14 بلیون سنة.
التکریم
تم إطلاق اسم "هابل" على التلسکوب الفضائی الذی وضعته فی مداره وکالة ناسا ووکالة الفضاء الأوروبیة سنة 1990، ولا یزال هذا المرصد یؤدی الغرض منه حتی الآن، وأتانا بصور للأجسام السماویة فی منتهى الدقة تبین تفاصیل لم نکن نعرفها من قبل، وکذلک صور لأعماق الکون یصل بعدها عنا نحو 10 ملیارات من السنین الضوئیة. ومن المرجح أن تقوم ناسا خلال عام 2009 ببعض التصلیحات للمرصد هابل فی الفضاء، بحیث یستمر فی إجراء عمله لمدة سنوات أخرى.
انظر أیضا
مراجع وملاحظات
قراءة إضافیة
وصلات خارجیة
شاهد المزید من الصور والملفات فی ویکیمیدیا کومنز حول: إدوین هابل
صورة للفلکی ادوین هابل وإنجازاته
Time 100 Profile
Astronomy at the University of Louisville - Photographs of Edwin Hubble at New Albany High School.
Edwin Hubble bio - Written by Allan Sandage
OConnor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "إدوین هابل", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive
American Physical Societys Hubble Bio
Edwin Powell Hubble - The man who discovered the cosmos
Astroprofs article on Hubble
Hubble: The Man and His Telescope - slideshow by Life magazine
تصنیفات: عسکریون أمریکیون فی الحرب العالمیة الثانیةعسکریون أمریکیون فی الحرب العالمیة الأولىخریجو جامعة شیکاغوموالید 1889وفیات 1953فلکیون أمریکیونفلکیونوفیات بسبب سکتة دماغیةوفیات ناجمة عن الأمراض القلبیة الوعائیة فی کالیفورنیا
قس انگلیسی
Edwin Powell Hubble (November 20, 1889 – September 28, 1953) was an American astronomer who played a crucial role in establishing the field of extragalactic astronomy and is generally regarded as one of the most important observational cosmologists of the 20th century. Hubble is known for showing that the recessional velocity of a galaxy increases with its distance from the earth, implying the universe is expanding. Known as "Hubbles law", this relation had been discovered previously by Georges Lemaître; a Belgian priest/astronomer who published his work in a less visible journal. There is still much controversy surrounding the issue and some argue that it should be referred to as "Lemaîtres law" although this change has not taken hold in the astronomy community.
Hubble is also known for providing substantial evidence that many formerly known "nebulae" were actually galaxies beyond the Milky Way. American astronomer Vesto Slipher provided the first evidence to this argument almost a decade before.
Hubble supported the Doppler shift interpretation of the observed redshift that had been proposed earlier by Vesto Slipher, and that led to the theory of the metric expansion of space. He tended to believe the frequency of any beam of light could, by some so far unknown means, be diminished ever stronger, the longer the beam travels through space.
Contents
Biography
Hubble was born to an insurance executive, John Powell Hubble, and Virginia Lee James in Marshfield, Missouri, and moved to Wheaton, Illinois, in 1900. In his younger days, he was noted more for his athletic prowess than his intellectual abilities, although he did earn good grades in every subject except for spelling. He won seven first places and a third place in a single high school track and field meet in 1906. That year he also set the state high school record for the high jump in Illinois. Another of his personal interests was dry-fly fishing, and he practiced amateur boxing as well.
His studies at the University of Chicago were concentrated on mathematics, astronomy and philosophy, which led to a bachelor of science degree in 1910. Hubble also became a member of the Kappa Sigma Fraternity (and in 1948 was named the Kappa Sigma "Man of the Year"). He spent the three years at The Queens College, Oxford after earning his bachelors as one of the universitys first Rhodes Scholars, initially studying jurisprudence (instead of science as a promise to his dying father), and later added literature and Spanish, and earning his masters degree.
In 1909, Hubbles father moved his family from Chicago to Shelbyville, Kentucky, so that the family could live in a small town, ultimately settling in nearby Louisville. His father died in the winter of 1913, while Edwin was still in England, and in the summer of 1913, Edwin returned to care for his mother, two sisters, and younger brother, as did his brother William. The family moved once more to Everett Avenue, in Louisvilles Highlands neighborhood, to accommodate Edwin and William.
Hubble was also a dutiful son, who despite his intense interest in astronomy since boyhood, surrendered to his father’s request to study law, first at the University of Chicago and later at Oxford, though he managed to take a few math and science courses. After the death of his father in 1913, Edwin returned to the Midwest from Oxford, but did not have the motivation to practice law. So he taught Spanish, physics, and mathematics at the New Albany High School in New Albany, Indiana for a year before he resolved to start over, at the age of 25, to become a professional astronomer. He also coached the boys basketball team there. After a year of high-school teaching, he entered graduate school with the help of his former professor from the University of Chicago to study astronomy at the Yerkes Observatory of the University, where he received his PhD in 1917. His dissertation was titled Photographic Investigations of Faint Nebulae.
Hubble then served in the United States Army in World War I, where he quickly advanced to the rank of major. In 1919, Hubble was offered a staff position in California by George Ellery Hale, the founder and director of the Carnegie Institutions Mount Wilson Observatory, near Pasadena, California, where he remained on the staff until his death. Hubble also served in the U.S. Army at the Aberdeen Proving Ground during World War II. For his work there, he received the Legion of Merit award. Shortly before his death, Mount Palomars giant 200-inch (5.1 m) reflector Hale Telescope was completed, and Hubble was the first astronomer to use it. Hubble continued his research at the Mount Wilson and Mount Palomar Observatories, where he remained active until his death.
Although Hubble was raised as a Christian, he later became an agnostic.
Hubble experienced a heart attack in July 1949 while on vacation in Colorado. He was taken care of by his wife, Grace Hubble, and continued on a modified diet and work schedule. He died of cerebral thrombosis (a spontaneous blood clot in his brain) on September 28, 1953, in San Marino, California. No funeral was held for him, and his wife never revealed his burial site.
Discoveries
The universe goes beyond the Milky Way galaxy
Edwin Hubbles arrival at Mount Wilson, California, in 1919 coincided roughly with the completion of the 100-inch (2.5 m) Hooker Telescope, then the worlds largest telescope. At that time, the prevailing view of the cosmos was that the universe consisted entirely of the Milky Way Galaxy. Using the Hooker Telescope at Mt. Wilson, Hubble identified Cepheid variables (a kind of star; see also standard candle) in several spiral nebulae, including the Andromeda Nebula and Triangulum. His observations, made in 1922–1923, proved conclusively that these nebulae were much too distant to be part of the Milky Way and were, in fact, entire galaxies outside our own. This idea had been opposed by many in the astronomy establishment of the time, in particular by the Harvard University-based Harlow Shapley. Despite the opposition, Hubble, then a thirty-five-year-old scientist, had his findings first published in The New York Times on November 23, 1924, and then more formally presented in the form of a paper at the January 1, 1925 meeting of the American Astronomical Society. Hubbles findings fundamentally changed the scientific view of the universe.
Hubble also devised the most commonly used system for classifying galaxies, grouping them according to their appearance in photographic images. He arranged the different groups of galaxies in what became known as the Hubble sequence.
Redshift increases with distance
The 100-inch (2.5 m) Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory that Hubble used to measure galaxy distances and a value for the rate of expansion of the universe.
Combining his own measurements of galaxy distances based on Henrietta Swan Leavitts period-luminosity relationship for Cepheids with Vesto Slipher and Milton L. Humasons measurements of the redshifts associated with the galaxies, he discovered a rough proportionality of the objects distances with their red shifts. Though there was considerable scatter (now known to be due to peculiar velocities), he was able to plot a trend line from the 46 galaxies and obtained a value for the Hubble Constant of 500 km/s/Mpc, which is much higher than the currently accepted value due to errors in their distance calibrations. In 1929 Hubble formulated the empirical Redshift Distance Law of galaxies, nowadays termed simply Hubbles law, which, if the redshift is interpreted as a measure of recession speed, is consistent with the solutions of Einstein’s equations of general relativity for a homogeneous, isotropic expanding space. Although concepts underlying an expanding universe were well understood earlier, this statement by Hubble and Humason led to wider-scale acceptance for this view. The law states that the greater the distance between any two galaxies, the greater their relative speed of separation. But two years before, in 1927, Georges Lemaître, a Belgian Catholic priest and physicist, published a paper in an obscure Belgian journal, Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles. In that paper, he showed that the data collected by Hubble and two other astronomers up to that time was enough to derive a linear velocity-distance relation between the galaxies, and that this supported a model of an expanding universe based on Einstein’s equations for General Relativity.
This discovery was the first observational support for the Big Bang theory which had been proposed by Georges Lemaître in 1927. The observed velocities of distant galaxies, taken together with the cosmological principle, appeared to show that the Universe was expanding in a manner consistent with the Friedmann-Lemaître model of general relativity. In 1931 Hubble wrote a letter to the Dutch cosmologist Willem de Sitter expressing his opinion on the theoretical interpretation of the redshift-distance relation:
Mr. Humason and I are both deeply sensible of your gracious appreciation of the papers on velocities and distances of nebulae. We use the term ‘apparent’ velocities to emphasize the empirical features of the correlation. The interpretation, we feel, should be left to you and the very few others who are competent to discuss the matter with authority.
Today, the "apparent velocities" in question are understood as an increase in proper distance that occurs due to the expansion of space. Light traveling through stretching space will experience a Hubble-type redshift, a mechanism different from the Doppler effect (although the two mechanisms become equivalent descriptions related by a coordinate transformation for nearby galaxies).
In the 1930s, Hubble was involved in determining the distribution of galaxies and spatial curvature. These data seemed to indicate that the universe was flat and homogeneous, but there was a deviation from flatness at large redshifts. According to Allan Sandage,
Hubble believed that his count data gave a more reasonable result concerning spatial curvature if the redshift correction was made assuming no recession. To the very end of his writings he maintained this position, favouring (or at the very least keeping open) the model where no true expansion exists, and therefore that the redshift "represents a hitherto unrecognized principle of nature."
There were methodological problems with Hubbles survey technique that showed a deviation from flatness at large redshifts. In particular, the technique did not account for changes in luminosity of galaxies due to galaxy evolution. Earlier, in 1917, Albert Einstein had found that his newly developed theory of general relativity indicated that the universe must be either expanding or contracting. Unable to believe what his own equations were telling him, Einstein introduced a cosmological constant (a "fudge factor") to the equations to avoid this "problem". When Einstein heard of Hubbles discovery, he said that changing his equations was "the biggest blunder of life."
Other discoveries
Hubble discovered the asteroid 1373 Cincinnati on August 30, 1935. He also wrote The Observational Approach to Cosmology and The Realm of the Nebulae approximately during this time.
No Nobel Prize
Hubble spent much of the later part of his career attempting to have astronomy considered an area of physics, instead of being its own science. He did this largely so that astronomers—including himself—could be recognized by the Nobel Prize Committee for their valuable contributions to astrophysics. This campaign was unsuccessful in Hubbles lifetime, but shortly after his death, the Nobel Prize Committee decided that astronomical work would be eligible for the physics prize. However, the prize is not one that can be awarded posthumously.
Stamp
On March 6, 2008, the United States Postal Service released a 41-cent stamp honoring Hubble on a sheet titled "American Scientists" designed by artist Victor Stabin. His citation reads:
Often called a "pioneer of the distant stars," astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889–1953) played a pivotal role in deciphering the vast and complex nature of the universe. His meticulous studies of spiral nebulae proved the existence of galaxies other than our own Milky Way. Had he not died suddenly in 1953, Hubble would have won that years Nobel Prize in Physics.
The other scientists on the "American Scientists" sheet include Gerty Cori, biochemist; Linus Pauling, chemist, and John Bardeen, physicist.
Honors
Awards
Bruce Medal in 1938;
Franklin Medal in 1939;
Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1940;
Legion of Merit for outstanding contribution to ballistics research in 1946.
Named after him
Asteroid 2069 Hubble;
The crater Hubble on the Moon;
Orbiting Hubble Space Telescope;
Edwin P. Hubble Planetarium, located in the Edward R. Murrow High School, Brooklyn, NY.;
Edwin Hubble Highway, the stretch of Interstate 44 passing through his birthplace of Marshfield, Missouri;
Hall of Famous Missourians 2003;
2008 "American Scientists" US stamp series, $0.41.
The Edwin P. Hubble Medal of Initiative is awarded annually by the city of Marshfield, Missouri — Hubbles birthplace.
Hubble Middle School in Wheaton, Illinois, was renamed for Edwin Hubble when Wheaton Central High School was converted to a middle school in the fall of 1992.
In Popular Culture
The play "Creations Birthday", written by Cornell physicist Hasan Padamsee, tells Hubbles life story.
See also
Astronomy
Distance measures
Cosmic distance ladder
Galaxies
Hubble sequence
Galaxy morphological classification
Gerard de Vaucouleurs
William Wilson Morgan
Expansion of the universe
Big bang
General relativity
Hubbles law
Hubble constant
Albert Einstein
Hubble Space Telescope
Edwin Hubble House, residence and National Historic Landmark in San Marino, California
The Great Debate of April 26, 1920
References and notes
^ "Biography of Edwin Powell Hubble (1889–1953)". NASA. Retrieved June 21, 2011.
^ Hubble, Edwin (1929). "A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae". PNAS 15 (3): 168–173. Bibcode 1929PNAS...15..168H. doi:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168. PMC 522427. PMID 16577160.
^ Nature. "Edwin Hubble in translation trouble : Nature News". Nature.com. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
^ Hubble, Edwin (12/1926). "Extragalactic nebulae.". Astrophysical Journal (64): 321–369. doi:10.1086/143018.
^ Slipher, V.M. (1917). Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.. 56. pp. 404–409.
^ Segal, I.E. (December 1993). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 90,. pp. 11114–11116.
^ Effects of Red Shifts on the Distribution of Nebulae, Hubble, Edwin, Astrophysical Journal, vol. 84, p.517, The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System
^ Red-shifts and the distribution of nebulæ, Hubble, Edwin, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 97, p.513, The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System
^ Engelbert Broda: "Weiten des Weltalls: Unsere Milchstraße und ihre Nachbarn of the universe: our Milky Way and its neighbors" (in German). Die Kräfte des Weltalls forces of the universe (Die Buchgemeinde authorized ed.). Vienna: Globus Zeitungs- Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, Gesellschaft m. b. H. 1954 . p. 18. "Es könnte auch sein, dass nach einem — bisher noch nicht aufgefundenen — Gesetz der Physik jeder Lichtstrahl im Laufe langer Zeiträume, also beim Durcheilen weiter Strecken, an Schwingungszahl verliert und aus diesem Grunde allmählich röter wird. Da die Energie eines Lichtstrahls um so kleiner ist, je röter das Licht ist, so würde das gleichzeitig bedeuten, dass das Licht im Lauf von Jahrmillionen Energie verliert. (Die Energie müsste dann freilich in anderer Form wieder auftauchen.) Das Licht, das von den fernsten Nebeln stammt, hätte die meiste Energie verloren, und die Rotverschiebung wäre begründet. Zu dieser Anschauung neigt jener Astronom, der sich um die Messung der Rotverschiebung die größten Verdienste erworben hat — Edwin Hubble." English: "It could also be that, according to a — so far not yet discovered — law of physics, every beam of light over long periods of time, i.e. when it hurries through long stretches, decreases in frequency and therefore, little by little, becomes redder. As the energy of a beam of light is the smaller the redder the light is, this would, at the same time, mean that light, over the course of millions of years, loses energy. (The energy would then, of course, have to reappear in an other form.) The light from the farthest galaxies would have lost the most energy so that the redshift would be explained. The astronomer who has contributed to the measurement of the redshift more than any other scientist — Edwin Hubble — tends to this view."
^ Gale E. Christianson (1996). Edwin Hubble: mariner of the nebulae. University of Chicago Press. pp. 13–18.
^ World of Physics and The Cloudy Night Book
^ a b Michael D. Lemonick (Monday, Mar. 29, 1999). "Astronomer Edwin Hubble". The Times. UK. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
^ The Rhodes Trust (Hubble, Edwin – The Queens College, Illinois (1910)). "Rhodes Scholars: Complete List, 1903–2010". The Rhodes Trust. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
^ John F. Kielkopf. "Edwin Hubble, Family, and Friends in Louisville 1909–1916".
^ Gale E. Christianson (1996). Edwin Hubble: Mariner of the Nebulae. University of Chicago Press. p. 183. ISBN 9780226105215. "One morning, while driving north with Grace after the failed eclipse expedition of 1923, he broached Whiteheads idea of a God who might have chosen from a great many possibilities to make a different universe, but He made this one. By contemplating the universe, one might approximate some idea of its Creator. As time passed, however, he seemed even less certain: "We do not know why we are born into the world, but we can try to find out what sort of a world it is — at least in its physical aspects." His life was dedicated to science and the objective world of phenomena. The world of pure values is one which science cannot enter, and science is unconcerned with the transcendent, however compelling a private revelation or individual moment of ecstasy. He pulled no punches when a deeply depressed friend asked him about his belief: "The whole thing is so much bigger than I am, and I cant understand it, so I just trust myself to it; and forget about it.""
^ Tom Bezzi (2000). Hubble Time. iUniverse. p. 93. ISBN 9780595142477. "John terribly depressed, and asked Edwin about his belief. Edwin said, "The whole thing is so much bigger than I am, and I cant understand it, so I just trust myself to it, and forget about it." It was not his nature to speculate. Theories, in his opinion, were appropriate cocktail conversation. He was essentially an observer, and as he said in The Realm (J the Nebulae: “Not until the empirical resources are exhausted, need we pass on to the dreamy realms of speculation.” Edwin never exhausted those empirical resources. “I am an observer, not a theoretical man,” he attested, and a lightly spoken word in a lecture or in a letter showed that observation was his choice."
^ Bill Bryson (2010). Short History of Nearly Everything: Special Illustrated Edition. Random House Digital, Inc.
^ a b Paul Kupperberg (2005). Hubble and the Big Bang. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 45–6.
^ J. L. Heilbron (2005). The Oxford guide to the history of physics and astronomy, Volume 10. Oxford University Press US. pp. 156–7.
^ Sharov, Aleksandr Sergeevich; Novikov, Igor Dmitrievich (1993). Edwin Hubble, the discoverer of the big bang universe. Cambridge University Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-521-41617-7. Retrieved December 31, 2011.
^ Marcia Bartusiak (2010). The Day We Found the Universe. Random House Digital, Inc. pp. x–xi.
^ David L. Block, Ivacircnio Puerari, Alan Stockton (2000). Toward a new millennium in galaxy morphology. Springer. pp. 146–150.
^ , Proceedings of the National Academy of Science vol 15
^ Robert P. Kirshner (January 6, 2004). "Hubble’s diagram and cosmic expansion". PNAS. Retrieved February 12, 2012.
^ Sandage, Allan (1989), "Edwin Hubble 1889–1953", The Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Vol. 83, No.6. Retrieved March 26, 2010.
^ Public Broadcasting Station (PBS). "Cosmological Constant". PBS.org. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
^ "Edwin Hubble". FamousScientists.org. Retrieved December 15, 2011.
^ Astroprof (November 20, 2006). "Edwin Hubble". Astroprofspage.com. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
^ Symmetry Magazine, "On Stage: Hubbles Contentious Life and Science"
Further reading
Bartusiak, Marcia. The Day We Found the Universe. New York: Pantheon, 2009.
Christianson, Gale; Edwin Hubble: Mariner of the Nebulae Farrar Straus & Giroux (T) (New York, August 1995.)
Hubble E.P., The Observational Approach to Cosmology (Oxford, 1937.)
Hubble E.P., The Realm of the Nebulae (New Haven, 1936.)
Hubble, Edwin (1929). "A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae". PNAS 15 (3): 168–173. Bibcode 1929PNAS...15..168H. doi:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168. PMC 522427. PMID 16577160.
Mayall, N.U., Edwin Powell Hubble Biographical Memoirs NAS 41
Osterbrock, Donald E.; Joel A. Gwinn and Ronald S. Brashear (July 1993). "Edwin Hubble and the Expanding Universe". Scientific American 269 (1): 84–89. Bibcode 1993SciAm.269...84O. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0793-84.
Harry Nussbaumer and Lydia Bieri, Discovering the expanding universe. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Edwin Powell Hubble
Time Profile
Astronomy at the University of Louisville — Photographs of Edwin Hubble at New Albany High School.
Edwin Hubble bio — Written by Allan Sandage
OConnor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Edwin Hubble", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.
American Physical Societys Hubble Bio
Edwin Powell Hubble — The man who discovered the cosmos
Astroprofs article on Hubble
Hubble: The Man and His Telescope — slideshow by Life magazine
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Categories: 1889 births1953 deathsPeople from Webster County, MissouriAmerican agnosticsAmerican astronomers20th-century astronomersDiscoverers of asteroidsCosmologistsAmerican Rhodes scholarsAlumni of The Queens College, OxfordUniversity of Chicago alumniDeaths from strokeRecipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical SocietyPeople from Wheaton, IllinoisCardiovascular disease deaths in CaliforniaEdwin HubbleRecipients of the Legion of MeritAmerican military personnel of World War IUnited States Army officersAmerican military personnel of World War II
edwin hubble
إدوين هابل
او کسی است که اولین طبقه بندی را از شکل کهکشانها ارائه کرد. طبقه بندی او تا مدتها توسط اخترشناسان مورد استفاده بود. ادوین هابل برای اولین بار رابطه‌ای میان سرعت و فاصلهٔ کهکشانها بدست آورد که می‌توانست مقیاسی از عالم را نتیجه دهد.
آثار عمیق هابل بر کیهان‌شناسی رصدی غیر قابل انکار است. همانگونه که نیکولاس کپرنیک در شناخت منظومه شمسی و ویلیام هرشل در شناخت کهکشان راه شیری تأثیر گذاشتند، ادوین هابل بر شناخت ما از عالم تأثیر گذاشت.
هابل با مشاهدات خود عنوان کرد که بسیاری از اجرام سحابی گونی که مشاهده می‌شوند، اجرامی هستند که بسیار بزرگ‌تر از اجرام داخل کهکشان راه شیری اند. او این اجرام را «جهان‌های جزیره‌ای» نامیده بود. در سال ۱۹۳۲ او موفق شد تا یک خوشهٔ کروی را در خارج از راه شیری و در ام۳۱ کشف کند و ثابت کرد که ام۳۱ کهکشانی مثل کهکشان ماست.
ادامهٔ پژوهش‌های هابل منجر به گشودن دریچه‌هایی جدید به کیهان‌شناسی شد: انبساط عالم، سن عالم، مهبانگ و چیزهای دیگر.
هابل از طریق مشاهدات خود و بررسی انتقال به سرخ کهکشانها و مقایسهٔ آنها با یکدیگر به این نتیجه رسید که «کهکشان‌های دورتر با سرعت بیشتری در حال دور شدن هستند.» این نتیجه را امروز به عنوان «قانون هابل» می‌شناسیم.
به پاس خدمات و تلاشهای علمی ادوین هابل در اخترشناسی و خصوصا کیهان شناسی، ۳۰ سال بعد از مرگش، اولین تلسکوپ فضایی تاریخ را به یاد او «هابل» نامیدند.
منابع
Wikipedia contributors, "Edwin Hubble," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia,
این یک نوشتار خُرد پیرامون افراد است. با گسترش آن به ویکی‌پدیا کمک کنید.
در ویکی‌انبار پرونده‌هایی دربارهٔ ادوین هابل موجود است.
مراجع کتابداری
برگه‌دان مجازی: 76485418
رده‌ها: ادوین هاب لافسران ارتش ایالات متحده دانش‌آموختگان دانشگاه شیکاگودرگذشتگان ۱۹۵۳ (میلادی)درگذشتگان به علت سکته دریافت‌کننده مدال دلیری نیروهای نظامی ایالات متحده آمریکازادگان ۱۸۸۹ (میلادی)ستاره‌شناسان اهل آمریکاشخصیت‌های نظامی آمریکا در جنگ جهانی اول فیزیک‌دانان اهل آمریکا کاشفان سیارک ندانم‌گرایان اهل آمریکا نظامیان ایالات متحده آمریکا در جنگ جهانی دوم نظامیان ایالات متحده در جنگ جهانی دوم
قس عربی
إدوین بویل هابل (Edwin Powell Hubble) (1889-1953). فلکی أمریکی أثبت وجود مجرات أخرى عدا المجرة اللبنیة. ولد فی مارشفیلد بولایة میسوری بالولایات المتحدة الأمریکیة، اشتغل ما بین عامی 1914-1917 فی مرصد یورکس بجامعة شیکاغو ثم بمرصد جبل ویلسون سنة 1919 وأخیراً بمرصد جبل بالومَرْ (Mart-Paloner) سنة 1948 وفیه قام بتوجیه الأبحاث الجاریة بواسطة التلسکوب.
محتویات
1 السیره الشخصیة
2 الاکتشافات
3 التکریم
4 انظر أیضا
5 مراجع وملاحظات
6 قراءة إضافیة
7 وصلات خارجیة
السیره الشخصیة
عاش فی شیکاغو ودرس الثانویة فیها, وکان طالبا عادیا وکان محبا للریاضة ومتفوقا فی القفز العالی بدأ دراسته الأکادیمیة فی دراسة القانون فی جامعة اوکسفورد فی بریطانیا إلا انه ترک الدراسة هناک معتقدا بأن هذه الدراسة لا ترضی طموحه حیث کانت رغبته فی دراسة الفلک.
الاکتشافات
لم تکن لدى علماء الفلک آنذاک طریقة لحساب عمر الکون، ولم یکونوا واثقین من وجود أی شیء أبعد من مجرة درب التبانة (أو الطریق اللبنی) الذی تکوّن المجموعة الشمسیة جزءا منه، ولکن هابل اکتشف فی عام 1924 أن هناک المزید من المجرات (فهناک فی الحقیقة الملیارات من المجرات), حیث أثبت أن الکون یتمدد مع الوقت بقیمة ثابتة, وهذا ما تقول به أهم نظریات نشأة الکون وهی نظریة الانفجار العظیم، حیث صححت صورة الکون الساکن ذی الحجم المحدود المستقر.
شهرة "هابل" أتت من کونه أول من إکتشف أن مجرة أندرومیدا (بالتصلیف الفلکی M31) تقع خارج مجرتنا ولا تتیعنا وبأنها مجرة مستقلة عن مجرتنا تماما ً. وقد استغل هابل ظاهرة الانزیاح الأحمر لطیف المجرات على أنه ظاهرة دوبلر ووجد أن الانزیاح الأحمر یتزاید بتزاید بعد المجرات عن الأرض. وهذا معناه أن المجرات لیست ثابتة فی الکون، بل کلها یتحرک ویبتعد عنا. بذلک أثبت أن المجرات تتباعد عن بعضها البعض بسرعة متناسبة مع ابتعادها، وسمیت هذه العلاقة بقانون هابل سنة 1929. هذا القانون ساهم کثیراً فی اعتماد نظریة الانفجار الکبیر.
یقدر معامل هابل لتمدد الکون 71 کیلومتر فی الثانیة لکل ملیون بارزیک، حیث 1 بارزیک = 3و3 ملیون سنة ضوئیة.
باستخدام معامل هابل استطاع العلماء تقدیر عمر الکون منذ الانفجار العظیم ب 13 إلى 5و14 بلیون سنة.
التکریم
تم إطلاق اسم "هابل" على التلسکوب الفضائی الذی وضعته فی مداره وکالة ناسا ووکالة الفضاء الأوروبیة سنة 1990، ولا یزال هذا المرصد یؤدی الغرض منه حتی الآن، وأتانا بصور للأجسام السماویة فی منتهى الدقة تبین تفاصیل لم نکن نعرفها من قبل، وکذلک صور لأعماق الکون یصل بعدها عنا نحو 10 ملیارات من السنین الضوئیة. ومن المرجح أن تقوم ناسا خلال عام 2009 ببعض التصلیحات للمرصد هابل فی الفضاء، بحیث یستمر فی إجراء عمله لمدة سنوات أخرى.
انظر أیضا
مراجع وملاحظات
قراءة إضافیة
وصلات خارجیة
شاهد المزید من الصور والملفات فی ویکیمیدیا کومنز حول: إدوین هابل
صورة للفلکی ادوین هابل وإنجازاته
Time 100 Profile
Astronomy at the University of Louisville - Photographs of Edwin Hubble at New Albany High School.
Edwin Hubble bio - Written by Allan Sandage
OConnor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "إدوین هابل", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive
American Physical Societys Hubble Bio
Edwin Powell Hubble - The man who discovered the cosmos
Astroprofs article on Hubble
Hubble: The Man and His Telescope - slideshow by Life magazine
تصنیفات: عسکریون أمریکیون فی الحرب العالمیة الثانیةعسکریون أمریکیون فی الحرب العالمیة الأولىخریجو جامعة شیکاغوموالید 1889وفیات 1953فلکیون أمریکیونفلکیونوفیات بسبب سکتة دماغیةوفیات ناجمة عن الأمراض القلبیة الوعائیة فی کالیفورنیا
قس انگلیسی
Edwin Powell Hubble (November 20, 1889 – September 28, 1953) was an American astronomer who played a crucial role in establishing the field of extragalactic astronomy and is generally regarded as one of the most important observational cosmologists of the 20th century. Hubble is known for showing that the recessional velocity of a galaxy increases with its distance from the earth, implying the universe is expanding. Known as "Hubbles law", this relation had been discovered previously by Georges Lemaître; a Belgian priest/astronomer who published his work in a less visible journal. There is still much controversy surrounding the issue and some argue that it should be referred to as "Lemaîtres law" although this change has not taken hold in the astronomy community.
Hubble is also known for providing substantial evidence that many formerly known "nebulae" were actually galaxies beyond the Milky Way. American astronomer Vesto Slipher provided the first evidence to this argument almost a decade before.
Hubble supported the Doppler shift interpretation of the observed redshift that had been proposed earlier by Vesto Slipher, and that led to the theory of the metric expansion of space. He tended to believe the frequency of any beam of light could, by some so far unknown means, be diminished ever stronger, the longer the beam travels through space.
Contents
Biography
Hubble was born to an insurance executive, John Powell Hubble, and Virginia Lee James in Marshfield, Missouri, and moved to Wheaton, Illinois, in 1900. In his younger days, he was noted more for his athletic prowess than his intellectual abilities, although he did earn good grades in every subject except for spelling. He won seven first places and a third place in a single high school track and field meet in 1906. That year he also set the state high school record for the high jump in Illinois. Another of his personal interests was dry-fly fishing, and he practiced amateur boxing as well.
His studies at the University of Chicago were concentrated on mathematics, astronomy and philosophy, which led to a bachelor of science degree in 1910. Hubble also became a member of the Kappa Sigma Fraternity (and in 1948 was named the Kappa Sigma "Man of the Year"). He spent the three years at The Queens College, Oxford after earning his bachelors as one of the universitys first Rhodes Scholars, initially studying jurisprudence (instead of science as a promise to his dying father), and later added literature and Spanish, and earning his masters degree.
In 1909, Hubbles father moved his family from Chicago to Shelbyville, Kentucky, so that the family could live in a small town, ultimately settling in nearby Louisville. His father died in the winter of 1913, while Edwin was still in England, and in the summer of 1913, Edwin returned to care for his mother, two sisters, and younger brother, as did his brother William. The family moved once more to Everett Avenue, in Louisvilles Highlands neighborhood, to accommodate Edwin and William.
Hubble was also a dutiful son, who despite his intense interest in astronomy since boyhood, surrendered to his father’s request to study law, first at the University of Chicago and later at Oxford, though he managed to take a few math and science courses. After the death of his father in 1913, Edwin returned to the Midwest from Oxford, but did not have the motivation to practice law. So he taught Spanish, physics, and mathematics at the New Albany High School in New Albany, Indiana for a year before he resolved to start over, at the age of 25, to become a professional astronomer. He also coached the boys basketball team there. After a year of high-school teaching, he entered graduate school with the help of his former professor from the University of Chicago to study astronomy at the Yerkes Observatory of the University, where he received his PhD in 1917. His dissertation was titled Photographic Investigations of Faint Nebulae.
Hubble then served in the United States Army in World War I, where he quickly advanced to the rank of major. In 1919, Hubble was offered a staff position in California by George Ellery Hale, the founder and director of the Carnegie Institutions Mount Wilson Observatory, near Pasadena, California, where he remained on the staff until his death. Hubble also served in the U.S. Army at the Aberdeen Proving Ground during World War II. For his work there, he received the Legion of Merit award. Shortly before his death, Mount Palomars giant 200-inch (5.1 m) reflector Hale Telescope was completed, and Hubble was the first astronomer to use it. Hubble continued his research at the Mount Wilson and Mount Palomar Observatories, where he remained active until his death.
Although Hubble was raised as a Christian, he later became an agnostic.
Hubble experienced a heart attack in July 1949 while on vacation in Colorado. He was taken care of by his wife, Grace Hubble, and continued on a modified diet and work schedule. He died of cerebral thrombosis (a spontaneous blood clot in his brain) on September 28, 1953, in San Marino, California. No funeral was held for him, and his wife never revealed his burial site.
Discoveries
The universe goes beyond the Milky Way galaxy
Edwin Hubbles arrival at Mount Wilson, California, in 1919 coincided roughly with the completion of the 100-inch (2.5 m) Hooker Telescope, then the worlds largest telescope. At that time, the prevailing view of the cosmos was that the universe consisted entirely of the Milky Way Galaxy. Using the Hooker Telescope at Mt. Wilson, Hubble identified Cepheid variables (a kind of star; see also standard candle) in several spiral nebulae, including the Andromeda Nebula and Triangulum. His observations, made in 1922–1923, proved conclusively that these nebulae were much too distant to be part of the Milky Way and were, in fact, entire galaxies outside our own. This idea had been opposed by many in the astronomy establishment of the time, in particular by the Harvard University-based Harlow Shapley. Despite the opposition, Hubble, then a thirty-five-year-old scientist, had his findings first published in The New York Times on November 23, 1924, and then more formally presented in the form of a paper at the January 1, 1925 meeting of the American Astronomical Society. Hubbles findings fundamentally changed the scientific view of the universe.
Hubble also devised the most commonly used system for classifying galaxies, grouping them according to their appearance in photographic images. He arranged the different groups of galaxies in what became known as the Hubble sequence.
Redshift increases with distance
The 100-inch (2.5 m) Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory that Hubble used to measure galaxy distances and a value for the rate of expansion of the universe.
Combining his own measurements of galaxy distances based on Henrietta Swan Leavitts period-luminosity relationship for Cepheids with Vesto Slipher and Milton L. Humasons measurements of the redshifts associated with the galaxies, he discovered a rough proportionality of the objects distances with their red shifts. Though there was considerable scatter (now known to be due to peculiar velocities), he was able to plot a trend line from the 46 galaxies and obtained a value for the Hubble Constant of 500 km/s/Mpc, which is much higher than the currently accepted value due to errors in their distance calibrations. In 1929 Hubble formulated the empirical Redshift Distance Law of galaxies, nowadays termed simply Hubbles law, which, if the redshift is interpreted as a measure of recession speed, is consistent with the solutions of Einstein’s equations of general relativity for a homogeneous, isotropic expanding space. Although concepts underlying an expanding universe were well understood earlier, this statement by Hubble and Humason led to wider-scale acceptance for this view. The law states that the greater the distance between any two galaxies, the greater their relative speed of separation. But two years before, in 1927, Georges Lemaître, a Belgian Catholic priest and physicist, published a paper in an obscure Belgian journal, Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles. In that paper, he showed that the data collected by Hubble and two other astronomers up to that time was enough to derive a linear velocity-distance relation between the galaxies, and that this supported a model of an expanding universe based on Einstein’s equations for General Relativity.
This discovery was the first observational support for the Big Bang theory which had been proposed by Georges Lemaître in 1927. The observed velocities of distant galaxies, taken together with the cosmological principle, appeared to show that the Universe was expanding in a manner consistent with the Friedmann-Lemaître model of general relativity. In 1931 Hubble wrote a letter to the Dutch cosmologist Willem de Sitter expressing his opinion on the theoretical interpretation of the redshift-distance relation:
Mr. Humason and I are both deeply sensible of your gracious appreciation of the papers on velocities and distances of nebulae. We use the term ‘apparent’ velocities to emphasize the empirical features of the correlation. The interpretation, we feel, should be left to you and the very few others who are competent to discuss the matter with authority.
Today, the "apparent velocities" in question are understood as an increase in proper distance that occurs due to the expansion of space. Light traveling through stretching space will experience a Hubble-type redshift, a mechanism different from the Doppler effect (although the two mechanisms become equivalent descriptions related by a coordinate transformation for nearby galaxies).
In the 1930s, Hubble was involved in determining the distribution of galaxies and spatial curvature. These data seemed to indicate that the universe was flat and homogeneous, but there was a deviation from flatness at large redshifts. According to Allan Sandage,
Hubble believed that his count data gave a more reasonable result concerning spatial curvature if the redshift correction was made assuming no recession. To the very end of his writings he maintained this position, favouring (or at the very least keeping open) the model where no true expansion exists, and therefore that the redshift "represents a hitherto unrecognized principle of nature."
There were methodological problems with Hubbles survey technique that showed a deviation from flatness at large redshifts. In particular, the technique did not account for changes in luminosity of galaxies due to galaxy evolution. Earlier, in 1917, Albert Einstein had found that his newly developed theory of general relativity indicated that the universe must be either expanding or contracting. Unable to believe what his own equations were telling him, Einstein introduced a cosmological constant (a "fudge factor") to the equations to avoid this "problem". When Einstein heard of Hubbles discovery, he said that changing his equations was "the biggest blunder of life."
Other discoveries
Hubble discovered the asteroid 1373 Cincinnati on August 30, 1935. He also wrote The Observational Approach to Cosmology and The Realm of the Nebulae approximately during this time.
No Nobel Prize
Hubble spent much of the later part of his career attempting to have astronomy considered an area of physics, instead of being its own science. He did this largely so that astronomers—including himself—could be recognized by the Nobel Prize Committee for their valuable contributions to astrophysics. This campaign was unsuccessful in Hubbles lifetime, but shortly after his death, the Nobel Prize Committee decided that astronomical work would be eligible for the physics prize. However, the prize is not one that can be awarded posthumously.
Stamp
On March 6, 2008, the United States Postal Service released a 41-cent stamp honoring Hubble on a sheet titled "American Scientists" designed by artist Victor Stabin. His citation reads:
Often called a "pioneer of the distant stars," astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889–1953) played a pivotal role in deciphering the vast and complex nature of the universe. His meticulous studies of spiral nebulae proved the existence of galaxies other than our own Milky Way. Had he not died suddenly in 1953, Hubble would have won that years Nobel Prize in Physics.
The other scientists on the "American Scientists" sheet include Gerty Cori, biochemist; Linus Pauling, chemist, and John Bardeen, physicist.
Honors
Awards
Bruce Medal in 1938;
Franklin Medal in 1939;
Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1940;
Legion of Merit for outstanding contribution to ballistics research in 1946.
Named after him
Asteroid 2069 Hubble;
The crater Hubble on the Moon;
Orbiting Hubble Space Telescope;
Edwin P. Hubble Planetarium, located in the Edward R. Murrow High School, Brooklyn, NY.;
Edwin Hubble Highway, the stretch of Interstate 44 passing through his birthplace of Marshfield, Missouri;
Hall of Famous Missourians 2003;
2008 "American Scientists" US stamp series, $0.41.
The Edwin P. Hubble Medal of Initiative is awarded annually by the city of Marshfield, Missouri — Hubbles birthplace.
Hubble Middle School in Wheaton, Illinois, was renamed for Edwin Hubble when Wheaton Central High School was converted to a middle school in the fall of 1992.
In Popular Culture
The play "Creations Birthday", written by Cornell physicist Hasan Padamsee, tells Hubbles life story.
See also
Astronomy
Distance measures
Cosmic distance ladder
Galaxies
Hubble sequence
Galaxy morphological classification
Gerard de Vaucouleurs
William Wilson Morgan
Expansion of the universe
Big bang
General relativity
Hubbles law
Hubble constant
Albert Einstein
Hubble Space Telescope
Edwin Hubble House, residence and National Historic Landmark in San Marino, California
The Great Debate of April 26, 1920
References and notes
^ "Biography of Edwin Powell Hubble (1889–1953)". NASA. Retrieved June 21, 2011.
^ Hubble, Edwin (1929). "A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae". PNAS 15 (3): 168–173. Bibcode 1929PNAS...15..168H. doi:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168. PMC 522427. PMID 16577160.
^ Nature. "Edwin Hubble in translation trouble : Nature News". Nature.com. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
^ Hubble, Edwin (12/1926). "Extragalactic nebulae.". Astrophysical Journal (64): 321–369. doi:10.1086/143018.
^ Slipher, V.M. (1917). Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.. 56. pp. 404–409.
^ Segal, I.E. (December 1993). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 90,. pp. 11114–11116.
^ Effects of Red Shifts on the Distribution of Nebulae, Hubble, Edwin, Astrophysical Journal, vol. 84, p.517, The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System
^ Red-shifts and the distribution of nebulæ, Hubble, Edwin, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 97, p.513, The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System
^ Engelbert Broda: "Weiten des Weltalls: Unsere Milchstraße und ihre Nachbarn of the universe: our Milky Way and its neighbors" (in German). Die Kräfte des Weltalls forces of the universe (Die Buchgemeinde authorized ed.). Vienna: Globus Zeitungs- Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, Gesellschaft m. b. H. 1954 . p. 18. "Es könnte auch sein, dass nach einem — bisher noch nicht aufgefundenen — Gesetz der Physik jeder Lichtstrahl im Laufe langer Zeiträume, also beim Durcheilen weiter Strecken, an Schwingungszahl verliert und aus diesem Grunde allmählich röter wird. Da die Energie eines Lichtstrahls um so kleiner ist, je röter das Licht ist, so würde das gleichzeitig bedeuten, dass das Licht im Lauf von Jahrmillionen Energie verliert. (Die Energie müsste dann freilich in anderer Form wieder auftauchen.) Das Licht, das von den fernsten Nebeln stammt, hätte die meiste Energie verloren, und die Rotverschiebung wäre begründet. Zu dieser Anschauung neigt jener Astronom, der sich um die Messung der Rotverschiebung die größten Verdienste erworben hat — Edwin Hubble." English: "It could also be that, according to a — so far not yet discovered — law of physics, every beam of light over long periods of time, i.e. when it hurries through long stretches, decreases in frequency and therefore, little by little, becomes redder. As the energy of a beam of light is the smaller the redder the light is, this would, at the same time, mean that light, over the course of millions of years, loses energy. (The energy would then, of course, have to reappear in an other form.) The light from the farthest galaxies would have lost the most energy so that the redshift would be explained. The astronomer who has contributed to the measurement of the redshift more than any other scientist — Edwin Hubble — tends to this view."
^ Gale E. Christianson (1996). Edwin Hubble: mariner of the nebulae. University of Chicago Press. pp. 13–18.
^ World of Physics and The Cloudy Night Book
^ a b Michael D. Lemonick (Monday, Mar. 29, 1999). "Astronomer Edwin Hubble". The Times. UK. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
^ The Rhodes Trust (Hubble, Edwin – The Queens College, Illinois (1910)). "Rhodes Scholars: Complete List, 1903–2010". The Rhodes Trust. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
^ John F. Kielkopf. "Edwin Hubble, Family, and Friends in Louisville 1909–1916".
^ Gale E. Christianson (1996). Edwin Hubble: Mariner of the Nebulae. University of Chicago Press. p. 183. ISBN 9780226105215. "One morning, while driving north with Grace after the failed eclipse expedition of 1923, he broached Whiteheads idea of a God who might have chosen from a great many possibilities to make a different universe, but He made this one. By contemplating the universe, one might approximate some idea of its Creator. As time passed, however, he seemed even less certain: "We do not know why we are born into the world, but we can try to find out what sort of a world it is — at least in its physical aspects." His life was dedicated to science and the objective world of phenomena. The world of pure values is one which science cannot enter, and science is unconcerned with the transcendent, however compelling a private revelation or individual moment of ecstasy. He pulled no punches when a deeply depressed friend asked him about his belief: "The whole thing is so much bigger than I am, and I cant understand it, so I just trust myself to it; and forget about it.""
^ Tom Bezzi (2000). Hubble Time. iUniverse. p. 93. ISBN 9780595142477. "John terribly depressed, and asked Edwin about his belief. Edwin said, "The whole thing is so much bigger than I am, and I cant understand it, so I just trust myself to it, and forget about it." It was not his nature to speculate. Theories, in his opinion, were appropriate cocktail conversation. He was essentially an observer, and as he said in The Realm (J the Nebulae: “Not until the empirical resources are exhausted, need we pass on to the dreamy realms of speculation.” Edwin never exhausted those empirical resources. “I am an observer, not a theoretical man,” he attested, and a lightly spoken word in a lecture or in a letter showed that observation was his choice."
^ Bill Bryson (2010). Short History of Nearly Everything: Special Illustrated Edition. Random House Digital, Inc.
^ a b Paul Kupperberg (2005). Hubble and the Big Bang. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 45–6.
^ J. L. Heilbron (2005). The Oxford guide to the history of physics and astronomy, Volume 10. Oxford University Press US. pp. 156–7.
^ Sharov, Aleksandr Sergeevich; Novikov, Igor Dmitrievich (1993). Edwin Hubble, the discoverer of the big bang universe. Cambridge University Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-521-41617-7. Retrieved December 31, 2011.
^ Marcia Bartusiak (2010). The Day We Found the Universe. Random House Digital, Inc. pp. x–xi.
^ David L. Block, Ivacircnio Puerari, Alan Stockton (2000). Toward a new millennium in galaxy morphology. Springer. pp. 146–150.
^ , Proceedings of the National Academy of Science vol 15
^ Robert P. Kirshner (January 6, 2004). "Hubble’s diagram and cosmic expansion". PNAS. Retrieved February 12, 2012.
^ Sandage, Allan (1989), "Edwin Hubble 1889–1953", The Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Vol. 83, No.6. Retrieved March 26, 2010.
^ Public Broadcasting Station (PBS). "Cosmological Constant". PBS.org. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
^ "Edwin Hubble". FamousScientists.org. Retrieved December 15, 2011.
^ Astroprof (November 20, 2006). "Edwin Hubble". Astroprofspage.com. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
^ Symmetry Magazine, "On Stage: Hubbles Contentious Life and Science"
Further reading
Bartusiak, Marcia. The Day We Found the Universe. New York: Pantheon, 2009.
Christianson, Gale; Edwin Hubble: Mariner of the Nebulae Farrar Straus & Giroux (T) (New York, August 1995.)
Hubble E.P., The Observational Approach to Cosmology (Oxford, 1937.)
Hubble E.P., The Realm of the Nebulae (New Haven, 1936.)
Hubble, Edwin (1929). "A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae". PNAS 15 (3): 168–173. Bibcode 1929PNAS...15..168H. doi:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168. PMC 522427. PMID 16577160.
Mayall, N.U., Edwin Powell Hubble Biographical Memoirs NAS 41
Osterbrock, Donald E.; Joel A. Gwinn and Ronald S. Brashear (July 1993). "Edwin Hubble and the Expanding Universe". Scientific American 269 (1): 84–89. Bibcode 1993SciAm.269...84O. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0793-84.
Harry Nussbaumer and Lydia Bieri, Discovering the expanding universe. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Edwin Powell Hubble
Time Profile
Astronomy at the University of Louisville — Photographs of Edwin Hubble at New Albany High School.
Edwin Hubble bio — Written by Allan Sandage
OConnor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Edwin Hubble", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.
American Physical Societys Hubble Bio
Edwin Powell Hubble — The man who discovered the cosmos
Astroprofs article on Hubble
Hubble: The Man and His Telescope — slideshow by Life magazine
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Categories: 1889 births1953 deathsPeople from Webster County, MissouriAmerican agnosticsAmerican astronomers20th-century astronomersDiscoverers of asteroidsCosmologistsAmerican Rhodes scholarsAlumni of The Queens College, OxfordUniversity of Chicago alumniDeaths from strokeRecipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical SocietyPeople from Wheaton, IllinoisCardiovascular disease deaths in CaliforniaEdwin HubbleRecipients of the Legion of MeritAmerican military personnel of World War IUnited States Army officersAmerican military personnel of World War II
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