زبان اکراینی
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معنی کلمه زبان اکراینی
معنی واژه زبان اکراینی
ukrainian language
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زبان اکراینی
معنی:
زبان اوکراینی (به اوکراینی: украї́нська мо́ва / ukrayinska mova) یک زبان هند و اروپایی و هموند شاخه شرقی گروه زبان‌های اسلاوی است. اوکراینی زبان رسمی کشور اوکراین است. دبیرهٔ سیریلیک برای نگارش زبان اوکراینی به‌کار می‌رود. این زبان دارای برخی واژگان مشترک با زبان‌های ملت‌های اسلاو همسایه است که عمده‌ترین این زبانها شامل لهستانی و اسلواکیایی در غرب و بلاروسی و روسی در شمال هستند.
زبان اوکراینی ریشه در زبان نیااسلاوی از ایالت قرون‌وسطایی روسیهٔ کیِفی دارد. مرحله پیش‌تر از آن زبان روتنیایی نام داشت. در واقع زبان اوکراینی از نسل زبان گفتاری است که در روسیه کی‌یفی (سده‌های ۱۰ تا ۱۳ میلادی) به‌کار می‌رفت.
این زبان در چندین دوره ممنوعیت در برابر بدخواهی‌ها ایستادگی کرده است و در طی سده‌ها، مردم اوکراین زبان‌شان را به واسطهٔ ترانه‌های فولکلور، رامشگران دوره‌گرد و نویسندگان مشهور پاس داشته‌اند.
محتویات
گویشوران
در حال حاضر زبان اوکراینی در حال پدیدار شدن پس از یک دوره طولانی افول است. تعداد گویشوران زبان اوکراینی در حدود ۳۷ میلیون نفر است. این زبان افزون بر اوکراین، یکی زبان‌های رسمی جمهوری خودمختار دنیستر نیز می‌باشد. اگرچه نزدیک به ۵۰ میلیون نفر اوکراینی در سراسر جهان زندگی می‌کنند، که از این تعداد ۳۷٫۵ میلیون در اوکراین (۷۷٫۸ درصد جمعیت) سکونت دارند، اما زبان اوکراینی فقط در اوکراین غربی رایج است.
عمده کشورهایی که گویشوران زبان اوکراینی را در خود جای داده‌اند از این قرارند:
اوکراین ۳۱۰۵۸٬۰۰۰ نفر
روسیه ۴٬۳۶۳٬۰۰۰ نفر
قزاقستان ۸۹۸٬۰۰۰ نفر
ایالات متحده ۸۴۴٬۰۰۰ نفر
مولداوی ۶۰۰٬۰۰۰ نفر
برزیل ۳۰۰٬۰۰۰ نفر
بلاروس ۲۹۱٬۰۰۰ نفر
کانادا ۲۰۰٬۵۲۵ نفر
ازبکستان ۱۵۳٬۰۰۰ نفر
لهستان ۱۵۰٬۰۰۰ نفر
کاربرد کنونی
در کیف هر دو زبان اوکراینی و روسی صحبت می‌شود، این دگرگونی اخیر برای شهری که در اصل روسی‌زبان بود بسیار قابل ملاحظه است. دلیل عمده این امر ورود جمعیت روستایی و مهاجران از مناطق غربی اوکراین و نیز گرایش برخی از اهالی کیف به تکلم بیشتر این زبان بوده است. در شمال و مرکز کشور، روسی زبان جمعیت شهری است، در حالی که در مناطق روستایی، زبان اوکراینی بیشتر رایج است. در جنوب و شرق اوکراین در تمامی مناطق، حتی نواحی روستایی و نیز در کریمه، زبان روسی کاملا رواج دارد و زبان اوکراینی تقریبا وجود ندارد.
زبان اوکراینی در این کشور رو به گسترش است، روستاییان (که از علاقمندان افراطی زبان اوکراینی هستند) همچنان به شهرهای مرکزی اوکراین مهاجرت می‌کنند و ادبیات سنتی اوکراین نیز رو به توسعه نهاده است. به گویشوران زبان اوکراینی، اوکراینوفون (Ukrainophone) می‌گویند. امروزه تقریبا تمامی مردم اوکراین می‌توانند به زبان اوکراینی سخن بگویند، در عین حال بسیاری از مردم زبان روسی را به روانی صحبت می‌کنند.
پانویس
↑ زبان اوکراینی (انگلیسی) دانشنامه بریتانیکا
منابع
مشارکت‌کنندگان ویکی‌پدیا، «Ukrainian language»، ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی، دانشنامهٔ آزاد. (بازیابی در ۲۵ ژوئن ۲۰۰۸).
این یک نوشتار خُرد است. با گسترش آن به ویکی‌پدیا کمک کنید.
ن • ب • و
زبانها و گویش‌های اسلاوی
اسلاوی شرقی
بلاروسی اسلاوی شرقی باستان† گویش نووگورود باستان† روسی روسین روتنی† اوکراینی
اسلاوی غربی
چکی کاشوبی کنانیک† سورابی پایین پانونی روسین پولابی† لهستانی پومرانی† اسلواکیایی اسلووینسی† سورابی بالا
اسلاوی جنوبی
بلغاری بانات بلغاری اسلاوی کلیسایی مقدونی اسلاوی کلیسایی باستان† زبان صرب‌و‌کرووات (بوسنیایی، بونیه‌واک، کروواتی، مونته‌نگروئی، صربی، شوکاک) اسلاویک یونان اسلونیایی
دیگر
نیااسلاوی† روسه‌نورسک† اسلاووصربی† اسلوویو
رده‌ها: زبان اوکراینی زبان‌های استرالیا زبان‌های اسلاوی شرقی زبان‌های اسلاوی زبان‌های اسلواکی زبان‌های اوکراین زبان‌های ایالات متحده زبان‌های ترنسنیستری ازبان‌های جمهوری آذربایجان زبان‌های روسیه زبان‌های رومانی زبان‌های صربستان زبان‌های کانادازبان‌های کرواسی زبان‌های لهستان زبان‌های مجارستان زبانها
قس عربی
اللغة الأوکرانیة (украї́нська мо́ва)، هی لغة من فرع اللغات السلافیة الشرقیة. وهی اللغة الرسمیة فی أوکرانیا. وتکتب هذه اللغة بالأبجدیة الأوکرانیة وهی أبجدیة مشتقة من الأبجدیة السریلیة.
یعود أصل اللغة الأوکرانیة إلى اللغة السلافیة الشرقیة القدیمة التی کانت لغة رسمیة فی دولة "کییف روس" (880-1240) (Київська Русь) التی کانت قائمة على الأراضی الأوکرانیة بین القرنین العاشر والثالث عشر المیلادی.
اللغة الأوکرانیة القدیمة التی تطورت من اللغة السلافیة الشرقیة کانت تعرف باسم اللغة الروثینیة (Староукраїнська мова). وتعد الأوکرانیة سلیل مباشر من اللغة العامیة المستخدمة فی کییف روس.
محتویات
هیکلیة اللغة
القواعد
الجملة فی اللغة الأوکرانیة تتبع نظام (S.V.O) أی فاعل - فعل - مفعول به. تماماً کاللغة الإنجلیزیة
عدد متکلمی الأوکرانیة
إنّ عدد متکلمی الأوکرانیة تقریبا 51 ملیون شخص، الذی منه 90% مرکّز فی أوکرانیا. الآخرون 10% فی الشتات الأوکرانی، الذی ینتشر على طول عدّة بلدان فی کافة أنحاء العالم، مثل الأرجنتین، بیلوروسیا، البرازیل، کندا، هنغاریا، لاتفیا، بولندا، رومانیا، روسیا والولایات المتّحدة.
من وجهة نظر هیکلیة، یشبه الأوکرانی الروسی فی الغالب، من کلّ اللغات السلافیة الأخرى. بالطبع، هذا أیضا تأثیر الهیمنة الروسیة على أوکرانیا بالإضافة إلى التأثیر الثابت للتجارة والهجرة الروسیة فی المنطقة.
مراجع
^ Ukrainian language, Encyclopædia Britannica
^ Stechishin-1958
^ جذور وفروع اللغة الأوکرانیة internetpolyglot.com
ع • ن • ت
لغات سلافیة
سلافیة غربیة
التشیکیة • الکاشوبیة • الکنعانیة • البولیبیة • البولندیة • البومیرانیة • السیلیزیة • السلوفاکیة • السلوفینسیة • صوربیة (Lower, Upper)
سلافیة شرقیة
البیلاروسیة • Carpathian Rusyn • Iazychie • السلافیة الشرقیة القدیمة • لهجة نوفغورود قدیمة • Pannonian Rusyn • الروسیة • Ruthenian • الأوکرانیة
سلافیة جنوبیة
البلغاریة • لغة سلافونیة الکنیسة القدیمة • مقدونیة • سلافونیة الکنیسة القدیمة • صربیة کرواتیة (البوسنیة • کرواتیة • مونتنغریة • صربیة) • سلوفینیة
أخرى
شبه سلافیة • اللغات السلافیة الصغرى • لغة سلافیة عامة • السلوفیانسکیة
لهجات منفصلة
(اللغات السلافیة الصغرى)
بانات البلغاریة • بورغنلاند الکرواتیة • التشاکافیة • السلوفاکیة الشرقیة • الکایکافیة • اللیتشیة • الکرواتیة المیلیزیة • البریکموریة • الریسیة • اللهجات السلافیة الیونانیة • الشتوکافیة • البولیزیة الغربیة • التورلاکیة
تشیر الکتابات المائلة إلى اللغات المنقرضة.
تصنیفات: لغات اشتقاقیةلغات أسترالیالغات أذربیجانلغات کندالغات کرواتیالغات کازاخستانلغات بولندالغات صربیالغات سلوفاکیالغات الولایات المتحدةلغات المجرلغات أوکرانیالغات روسیالغات سلافیة شرقیة
قس آلمانی
Ukrainisch (Eigenbezeichnung українська (мова)/ukrajinska (mowa), wiss. Transliteration ukrajins’ka mova, veraltet auch als Kleinrussisch und manchmal auch als Ruthenisch bezeichnet) ist eine Sprache aus der ostslawischen Untergruppe des slawischen Zweigs der indogermanischen Sprachen.
Ukrainisch ist nach dem Russischen und Polnischen die drittgrößte slawische Sprache sowie alleinige Amtssprache der Ukraine und wird dort von 35 Millionen Menschen als Muttersprache gesprochen. Daneben gibt es Nicht-Ukrainer, die Ukrainisch als Zweitsprache verwenden.
Ukrainisch wird mit dem kyrillischen Alphabet geschrieben, wobei die ukrainische Version in einigen Buchstaben von der russischen abweicht.
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Geschichte
Verbreitung (Prozentzahl der Sprecher) der ukrainischen Sprache in den Gouvernements des Russischen Reiches nach der offiziellen Statistik 1897
Heutige Verbreitung (Prozentzahl der Muttersprachler) der Ukrainischen Sprache in der Republik Ukraine nach der offiziellen Statistik 2001
Ukrainisch gehört zusammen mit dem Russischen und dem Weißrussischen zur ostslawischen Sprachgruppe.
Die Bezeichnung für das gesamte ostslawische Territorium führte regelmäßig zu Verwechslungen, weil „Rus“ mit Russland gleichgesetzt wurde. So kam es beispielsweise zu den Sprachbezeichnungen „Großrussisch“ für Russisch, „Kleinrussisch“ für Ukrainisch, womit Ukrainisch oftmals als Dialekt oder Unterart des Russischen eingeordnet wurde.
In der ältesten Epoche (ungefähr bis zum 14. Jahrhundert) hatten alle Ostslawen eine gemeinsame Schriftsprache (Altostslawisch), in der mittleren (ca. 15. bis 18. Jahrhundert) benutzten die Vorfahren der heutigen Ukrainer und Weißrussen gemeinsam die ruthenische Sprache.
Gegen Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts entwickelte sich neben dem bis dahin gebräuchlichen Kirchenslawischen eine aus der Volkssprache kommende ukrainische Schriftsprache und Literatur. Im 19. Jahrhundert erlebte die ukrainische Kultur und damit auch ihre Literatursprache eine Blütezeit; die Entwicklung konzentrierte sich weniger auf politische als auf wissenschaftliche Themen. Literaten wie Gogol bevorzugten Russisch.
Dennoch wurde 1876 aus Angst vor separatistischen Bestrebungen von Zar Alexander II. in Bad Ems auf Betreiben der zaristischen Zensurbehörde ein weitreichendes Verbot ukrainischsprachiger Publikationen ausgesprochen (Emser Erlass). Bis 1906 unterlagen ukrainische wissenschaftliche Publikationen, Lesungen, Ausstellungen und Konzerte diesem Diktat. Der bedeutendste ukrainische Dichter Taras Schewtschenko (1814–1861) wurde für seine Texte und Gedichte in die turkmenische Verbannung geschickt.
Geografische Verbreitung der ukrainischen Sprache
In der Karpatoukraine und auf dem Gebiet Ungarns und der späteren Slowakei gab es bereits im 19. Jahrhundert Bestrebungen zu einer eigenen Schriftsprache, die zwar auch auf den örtlichen ukrainischen Dialekten beruhte, sich aber von der ukrainischen Standardsprache unterschied. Diese Bestrebungen haben ab dem Ende der achtziger Jahre des 20. Jahrhunderts wieder zugenommen, ihr Ergebnis war die Kodifikation der karpato-russinischen Sprache auf der Grundlage des Dialekts von Zemplin. Stärker abweichend ist die jugoslawo-russinische Sprache in der Vojvodina, die wegen Gemeinsamkeiten mit dem Slowakischen als Übergangsdialekt zwischen ostslawischer und westslawischer Sprachenfamilie betrachtet werden kann.
Mit der Gründung einer ukrainischen Volksrepublik 1918 wurde Ukrainisch erstmalig zur Staatssprache, später auch in der Ukrainischen Sowjetrepublik. Während der Sowjetzeit war Ukrainisch also nicht verboten, jedoch dominierte die russische Sprache als Verkehrssprache alle wissenschaftlichen und literarischen Arbeiten sowie die Medien. Deshalb unterliegt die Umgangssprache bis heute starken russischen Einflüssen. Dies ist besonders dann bemerkbar, wenn ein Vergleich mit dem Wortschatz der starken ukrainischen Diaspora in Kanada vorgenommen wird: hier tauchen wesentlich weniger Begriffe russischen Ursprungs auf, während „kanadisch-ukrainische“ Wörter im einheimisch-ukrainischen Sprachgebrauch selten benutzt werden oder in der Umgangssprache veraltet und exotisch wirken.
Mit der Unabhängigkeit der Ukraine 1991 wurde Ukrainisch zur Amtssprache des neuen Staates. Es gab hierüber heftige Debatten, da auf dem Staatsgebiet der Ukraine einerseits nach verschiedenen Angaben ca. 22 bis 40 Prozent der Bevölkerung Russen sind, andererseits auch viele Ukrainer, besonders im Osten des Landes, ausschließlich russisch sprechen. Eine im ganzen Land verbreitete (seit der Unabhängigkeit mit fallender Tendenz), nur mündlich verwendete Mischform des Ukrainischen und Russischen ist der Surschyk.
Aufgrund dieser historischen Entwicklung ist die Sprache für viele Ukrainer bis heute ein hochpolitisches Thema, das manchmal vehement diskutiert wird. Seit der Unabhängigkeit setzte eine Phase der Ukrainisierung ein, aber 2012 wurde der russischen Sprache in 13 der 27 Regionen des Landes wieder ein offizieller Status zugestanden.
Alphabet
Das heutige ukrainische Alphabet mit der wissenschaftlichen Transliteration und der deutschen Transkription:
Groß (HTML-Entity) Klein (HTML-Entity) wissenschaftliche
Transliteration deutsche
Transkription
А (А) а (а) A a A a
Б (Б) б (б) B b B b
В (В) в (в) V v W w
Г (Г) г (г) H h H h
Ґ (Ґ) ґ (ґ) G g G g
Д (Д) д (д) D d D d
Е (Е) е (е) E e E e
Є (Є) є (є) Je je Je je
Ж (Ж) ж (ж) Ž ž Sch (Zh) sch (zh)
З (З) з (з) Z z S s
И (И) и (и) Y y Y y
І (І) і (і) I i I i
Ї (Ї) ї (ї) Ji ji Ji ji
Й (Й) й (й) J j J j
К (К) к (к) K k K k (statt ks auch x)
Л (Л) л (л) L l L l
М (М) м (м) M m M m
Н (Н) н (н) N n N n
О (О) о (о) O o O o
П (П) п (п) P p P p
Р (Р) р (р) R r R r
С (С) с (с) S s S s (zwischen Vokalen auch ss)
Т (Т) т (т) T t T t
У (У) у (у) U u U u
Ф (Ф) ф (ф) F f F f
Х (Х) х (х) Ch ch Ch ch
Ц (Ц) ц (ц) C c Z z
Ч (Ч) ч (ч) Č č Tsch tsch
Ш (Ш) ш (ш) Š š Sch sch
Щ (Щ) щ (щ) Šč šč Schtsch schtsch (Stsch stsch)
ь (ь) ’ bzw. j 1 (Weichheitszeichen) (–) bzw. j
Ю (Ю) ю (ю) Ju ju Ju ju
Я (Я) я (я) Ja ja Ja ja
’ ’ (Apostroph) 2 (–)
Hinweise:
1: nur nach Konsonanten; ein Großbuchstabe existiert nicht; palatisiert den vorangehenden Konsonanten; „j“ vor „o“, sonst (im Auslaut und vor Konsonanten) „’“; in der Transkription „j“ vor „o“, sonst nicht wiedergegeben
2: nur zwischen Konsonanten und „j“ + Vokal; in der Transkription gewöhnlich nicht wiedergegeben
Wortschatz und Aussprache
Aufgrund der relativ späten Differenzierung der einzelnen slawischen Sprachen aus dem gemeinsamen Ursprung Urslawisch ist der gemeinsame Wortschatz vergleichsweise groß, er beträgt etwa zwei Drittel. Ukrainisch unterscheidet sich in Wortschatz, Lautbildung und Satzbau vom Russischen etwas stärker als Weißrussisch und hat darüber hinaus viele Lehnwörter aus dem Polnischen.
Im direkten Vergleich mit der russischen Sprache nennt J. B. Rudnyckyj (Lehrbuch der ukrainischen Sprache, Wiesbaden 1964) unter anderem folgende Lautverschiebungen (jeweils das erste Wort russisch und das zweite ukrainisch):
Itavismus: die Vokale e und o werden in geschlossenen Silben zu i
Bsp.: Львов (Lwow) – Львів (Lwiw), кошка (koschka – Katze) – кішка (kiška)
Ikavismus: der „jat“-Laut je wird zu i
Bsp.: месяц (mjesjaz – Monat, Mond) – місяць (misjaz), медь (Mjed – Kupfer) – мідь (Mid)
harte Konsonanten vor dem e
Bsp.: весна (vjesná – Frühling) – весна (vesna), перед (pjered – vor) – перед (pered)
Verschmelzung der altslawischen Laute i und ы zu и
Bsp.: пиво (pívo – Bier) – пиво (pyvo), нитка (nítka) – нитка (nytka)
Entwicklung des g-Lauts zu h
Bsp.: голова (galavá) – Kopf – голова (holova), горло (górlo Kehle, Hals) – горло (horlo)
die Vokalisierung des l-Lautes, geschrieben в
Bsp.: пил (pil – er trank) – пив (pyv), брал (bral – er nahm) – брав (brav), волк (volk – Wolf) – вовк (vovk).
Ein Beispiel für Unterschiede im Wortschatz ist das Verb heiraten:
russisch: жениться (für den Mann; Wortstamm жена – Frau), выходить замуж (für die Frau; wörtlich: hinter den Mann treten)
ukrainisch: одружуватися (für beide Geschlechter; Wortstamm дружба – Freundschaft, auch дружина - Gattin)
Grammatik
Siehe Hauptartikel: Ukrainische Grammatik.
Die ukrainische Sprache unterscheidet sieben Fälle (відмінки):
Nominativ (називний відмінок)
Genitiv (родовий відмінок)
Dativ (давальний відмінок)
Akkusativ (знахідний відмінок)
Instrumentalis (орудний відмінок)
Lokativ (місцевий відмінок), entspricht dem Russischen Präpositiv
Vokativ (кличний відмінок), reine Anredeform
Bei der Flexion der Substantive unterscheidet man neben dem Terminus „Deklination“ die sogenannten Deklinationsklassen (відміна), wobei diese zusätzlich zum grammatischen Genus die Flexion bestimmen. Darüber hinaus werden innerhalb einiger Deklinationsklassen Gruppen unterschieden, die sich durch die Art ihrer Endungen (hart, weich, gemischt) charakterisieren.
Eine Eigenheit ukrainischer Adjektive ist die Bildung von Formen, die eine emotionale Einstellung zu Personen und Gegenständen kennzeichnen; diese kann verkleinernd, liebkosend, vergrößernd oder vergröbernd sein. So wird zum Beispiel das Adjektiv „schön“ (гарний) durch die Form гарненький „verzärtlicht“ (siehe Diminutiv bei Substantiven). Die Adjektive werden ebenfalls in zwei Gruppen (hart und weich) dekliniert.
Während man im Ukrainischen nur drei Zeitkategorien (Vergangenheit, Gegenwart, Zukunft) des Verbs unterscheidet, spielt die Kategorie der „Aktionsart“ (Aspekt) eine große Rolle (wie auch in anderen slawischen Sprachen). Jedes Verb existiert in zwei Aspekten, dem unvollendeten und dem vollendeten Aspekt. In ihrer lexikologischen Bedeutung sind diese Aspektpaare identisch. Die jeweils imperfekte Verbform drückt eine unvollendete, in der Zeit nicht begrenzte Handlung in Vergangenheit, Gegenwart oder Zukunft aus. Die perfekte Verbform dagegen kommt nur im Präteritum und Präsens vor, wobei das Präsens die grammatische Zukunft ausdrückt. Diese Besonderheit des Verbs kann viele verschiedene Funktionen und Merkmale annehmen, die dem Nicht-Muttersprachler schwer zu vermitteln sind; der Bedeutungsunterschied kann manchmal nur aus dem Kontext verstanden werden.
Literatur
Svetlana Amir-Babenko, Franz Pfliegl, Praktische Kurzgrammatik der ukrainischen Sprache, Buske, Hamburg 2005, 978-3-87548-371-0
Svetlana Amir-Babenko, Lehrbuch der ukrainischen Sprache, Buske, Hamburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-87548-479-3
Quellenangaben
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Weblinks
Wiktionary: Ukrainisch – Bedeutungserklärungen, Wortherkunft, Synonyme, Übersetzungen
Commons: Ukrainische Sprache – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien
Commons: Ukrainische Aussprache – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien
Eintrag zur ukrainischen Sprache in der Enzyklopädie des Europäischen Ostens (PDF; 425 kB)
Ukrainisches Vokabeltraining
Online-Wörterbuch englisch-ukrainisch-englisch
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Kategorien: Ukrainische SpracheEinzelsprache
قس انگلیسی
Ukrainian (украї́нська мо́ва / ukrayinska mova, ˈmɔwɑ, formerly Ruthenian - ру́ська, руси́нська мо́ва / ruska, rusynska mova) is a member of the East Slavic subgroup of the Slavic languages. It is the official state language of Ukraine and the principal language of the Ukrainians. Written Ukrainian uses a variant of the Cyrillic script.
The Ukrainian language traces its origins to the Old East Slavic of the early medieval state of Kievan Rus. Ukrainian is a lineal descendant of the colloquial language used in Kievan Rus (10th–13th century). From 1804 until the Russian Revolution Ukrainian was banned from schools in the Russian Empire of which Ukraine was a part at the time. It has always maintained a sufficient base in Western Ukraine where the language was never banned in its folklore songs, itinerant musicians, and prominent authors.
The standard Ukrainian language is regulated by the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NANU), particularly by its Institute for the Ukrainian Language, Ukrainian language-informatical fund, and Potebnya Institute of Language Studies. Ukrainian, Russian, Belarusian, and Rusyn have a high degree of mutual intelligibility. Lexically, the closest to Ukrainian is Belarusian (84 % of common vocabulary), followed by Polish (70 %), Serbo-Croatian (68 %), Slovak (66 %) and Russian (62 %).
Contents
Linguistic development of the Ukrainian language
Theories concerning the Ukrainian languages development
A point of view developed during the 19th and 20th centuries by linguists of Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union. Like Lomonosov, they assumed the existence of a common language spoken by East Slavs in the past. But unlike Lomonosovs hypothesis, this theory does not view Polonization or any other external influence as the main driving force that led to the formation of three different languages: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian from the common Old East Slavic language. This general point of view is the most accepted amongst academics world-wide, particularly outside Ukraine. The supporters of this theory disagree, however, about the time when the different languages were formed.needed
Soviet scholars set the divergence between Ukrainian and Russian only at later time periods (14th through 16th centuries). According to this view, Old East Slavic diverged into Belarusian and Ukrainian to the west (collectively, the Ruthenian language of the 15th to 18th centuries), and Old Russian to the north-east, after the political boundaries of Kievan Rus were redrawn in the 14th century. During the time of the incorporation of Ruthenia (Ukraine and Belarus) into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Ukrainian and Belarusian diverged into identifiably separate languages.
Some scholars see a divergence between the language of Galicia-Volhynia and the language of Novgorod-Suzdal by the 12th century, assuming that before the 12th century, the two languages were practically indistinguishable. This point of view is, however, at variance with some historical data. In fact, several East Slavic tribes, such as Polans, Drevlyans, Severians, Dulebes (that later likely became Volhynians and Buzhans), White Croats, Tiverians and Ulichs lived on the territory of todays Ukraine long before the 12th century. Notably, some Ukrainian features were recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic as far back as the language can be documented.
Some researchers, while admitting the differences between the dialects spoken by East Slavic tribes in the 10th and 11th centuries, still consider them as "regional manifestations of a common language" (see, for instance, the article by Vasyl Nimchuk). In contrast, Ahatanhel Krymsky and Alexei Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the common spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century.
Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky went even further, denying the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko, Vsevolod Hantsov, Olena Kurylo, Ivan Ohienko and others. According to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to an intensive migration of the population within the territory of todays Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was also confirmed by Yuri Shevelovs phonological studies and, although it is gaining a number of supporters among Ukrainian academics, it is not seriously regarded outside Ukraine.
Outside Ukraine, however, such nationalist-based theories that distance Ukrainian from East Slavic have found few followers among international scholars and most academics continue to place Ukrainian firmly within the East Slavic group, descended from Proto-East Slavic, with close ties to Belarusian and Russian.
Origins and developments during medieval times
As the result of close Slavic contacts with the remnants of Scythian and Sarmatian population north of the Black Sea, lasting into the early Middle Ages, is explained the appearance of voiced fricative γ(h) in modern Ukrainian and some southern Russian dialects, that initially emerged in Scythian and the related eastern Iranian dialects from earlier common Proto-Indo-European g* and gh*.
Ukrainian traces its roots through the mid-14th century Ruthenian language, a chancellery language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, back to the early written evidences of 10th century Rus. Until the end of the 18th century, the written language used in Ukraine was quite different from the spoken, which is one of the key difficulties in tracing the origin of the Ukrainian language more precisely. There is little direct data on the origin of the Ukrainian language. Scholars rely on indirect methods: analysis of typical mistakes in old manuscripts, comparison of linguistic data with historical, anthropological, archaeological ones, etc. Several theories of the origin of Ukrainian language exist. Some early theories have been proven wrong by modern linguistics (yet continue to be cited), while others are still being discussed in the academic community.needed
It is believedwhom? that up to the 14th century, ancestors of the modern Ukrainians spoke dialects of the language known collectively as Old East Slavic (today known as Ruthenian language), also spoken by other East Slavs of Kievan Rus. That mainly spoken tongue was used alongside Old Church Slavonic, the literary language of all Slavs. The earliest written record of the language is an amphora found at Gnezdovo and tentatively dated to the mid-10th century. Until the 15th century, Gnezdovo was a part of the independent Smolensk principality.needed
It is knownwhom? that between 9th and 13th century, many areas of modern Ukraine, Belarus and parts of Russia were united in a common entity now referred to as Rus. Surviving documents from the Kievan Rus period are written in either Old East Slavic or Old Church Slavonic language or their mixture. Different earldoms of Rus had different dialects of Old East Slavic. These languages are considerably different from both modern Ukrainian and Russian, but similar enough that a modern educated Ukrainian or Russian reader can understand 11th-century texts reasonably well.needed
During the 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of Galicia-Vollhynia, German words began to appear in the language spoken in Ukraine. Their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts. Examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh (roof), rura (pipe), rynok (market), kushnir (furrier), and majster (master or craftsman).
Developments under Poland and Lithuania
In the 13th century, eastern parts of Rus (including Moscow) came under Tatar yoke until their unification under the Tsardom of Muscovy, whereas the south-western areas (including Kiev) were incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. For the following four centuries, the language of the two regions evolved in relative isolation from each other. Direct written evidence of the existence of the Ukrainian language dates to the late 16th century. By the 16th century, a peculiar official language was formed: a mixture of Old Church Slavonic, Ruthenian and Polish with the influence of the last of these three gradually increasing. Documents soon took on many Polish characteristics superimposed on Ruthenian phonetics. Polish rule and education also involved significant exposure to the Latin language. Much of the influence of Poland on the development of the Ukrainian language has been attributed to this period and is reflected in multiple words and constructions used in everyday Ukrainian speech that were taken from Polish or Latin. Examples of Polish words adopted from this period include zavzhdy (always; taken from old Polish word zawżdy) and obitsiaty (to promise; taken from Polish obiecać) and from Latin raptom (suddenly) and meta (aim or goal).
Significant contact with Tatars and Turks resulted in many Turkic words, particularly those involving military matters and steppe industry, being adopted into the Ukrainian language. Examples include torba (bag) and tyutyun (tobacco).
By the mid-17th century, the linguistic divergence between the Ukrainian and Russian languages was so acute that there was a need for translators during negotiations for the Treaty of Pereyaslav, between Bohdan Khmelnytsky, head of the Zaporozhian Host, and the Russian state.
History of the Ukrainian spoken languages usage
See also: History of Ukraine
Percentage of people with Ukrainian as their native language according to 2001 census (by region).
Rus and Galicia-Volhynia
During the Khazar period, the territory of Ukraine, settled at that time by Iranian (post-Scythian), Turkic (post-Hunnic, proto-Bulgarian), and Uralic (proto-Hungarian) tribes, was progressively Slavicized by several waves of migration from the Slavic north. Finally, the Varangian ruler of Novgorod, called Oleg, seized Kiev (Kyiv) and established the political entity of Rus. Some theorists see an early Ukrainian stage in language development here; others term this era Old East Slavic or Old Ruthenian/Rusian. Russian theorists tend to amalgamate Rus to the modern nation of Russia, and call this linguistic era Old Russian. Some hold that linguistic unity over Rus was not present, but tribal diversity in language was.
The era of Rus is the subject of some linguistic controversy, as the language of much of the literature was purely or heavily Old Slavonic. At the same time, most legal documents throughout Rus were written in a purely Old East Slavic language (supposed to be based on the Kiev dialect of that epoch). Scholarly controversies over earlier development aside, literary records from Rus testify to substantial divergence between Russian and Ruthenian/Rusyn forms of the Ukrainian language as early as the era of Rus. One vehicle of this divergence (or widening divergence) was the large scale appropriation of the Old Slavonic language in the northern reaches of Rus and of the Polish language at the territory of modern Ukraine. As evidenced by the contemporary chronicles, the ruling princes of Galich (modern Halych) and Kiev called themselves "People of Rus" (with the exact Cyrillic spelling of the adjective from of Rus varying among sources), which contrasts sharply with the lack of ethnic self-appellation for the area until the mid-19th century.
One prominent example of this north-south divergence in Rus from around 1200, was the epic, The Tale of Igors Campaign. Like other examples of Old Rus literature (for example, Byliny, the Primary Chronicle), which survived only in Northern Russia (Upper Volga belt) and was probably created there. It shows dialectal features characteristic of Severian dialect with the exception of two words which were wrongly interpreted by early 19th century German scholars as Polish loan words.needed
Under Lithuania/Poland, Muscovy/Russia, and Austro-Hungary
Further information: Name of Ukraine
Miniature of St Luke from the Peresopnytsia Gospels (1561).
After the fall of Galicia–Volhynia, Ukrainians mainly fell under the rule of Lithuania, then Poland. Local autonomy of both rule and language was a marked feature of Lithuanian rule. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Old Slavic became the language of the chancellery and gradually evolved into the Ruthenian language. Polish rule, which came mainly later, was accompanied by a more assimilationist policy. By the 1569 Union of Lublin that formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a significant part of Ukrainian territory was moved from Lithuanian rule to Polish administration, resulting in cultural Polonization and visible attempts to colonize Ukraine by the Polish nobility. Many Ukrainian nobles learned the Polish language and adopted Catholicism during that period. Lower classes were less affected because literacy was common only in the upper class and clergy. The latter were also under significant Polish pressure after the Union with the Catholic Church. Most of the educational system was gradually Polonized. In Ruthenia, the language of administrative documents gradually shifted towards Polish.
The Polish language has had heavy influences on Ukrainian (and on Belarusian).needed As the Ukrainian language developed further, some borrowings from Tatar and Turkish occurred. Ukrainian culture and language flourished in the sixteenth and first half of the 17th century, when Ukraine was part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Among many schools established in that time, the Kiev-Mogila Collegium (the predecessor of modern Kyiv-Mohyla Academy), founded by the Orthodox Metropolitan Peter Mogila (Petro Mohyla), was the most important. At that time languages were associated more with religions: Catholics spoke Polish language, Orthodox spoke Rusyn language.
After the Treaty of Pereyaslav, Ukrainian high culture was sent into a long period of steady decline. In the aftermath, the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was taken over by the Russian Empire and closed down later in 19th century. Most of the remaining Ukrainian schools also switched to Polish or Russian, in the territories controlled by these respective countries, which was followed by a new wave of Polonization and Russification of the native nobility. Gradually the official language of Ukrainian provinces under Poland was changed to Polish, while the upper classes in the Russian part of Ukraine used Russian widely.
During the 19th century, a revival of Ukrainian self-identity manifested itself in the literary classes of both Russian-Empire Dnieper Ukraine and Austrian Galicia. The Brotherhood of Sts Cyril and Methodius in Kiev applied an old word for the Cossack motherland, Ukrajina, as a self-appellation for the nation of Ukrainians, and Ukrajins’ka mova for the language. Many writers published works in the Romantic tradition of Europe demonstrating that Ukrainian was not merely a language of the village, but suitable for literary pursuits.
However, in the Russian Empire expressions of Ukrainian culture and especially language were repeatedly persecuted, for fear that a self-aware Ukrainian nation would threaten the unity of the Empire. In 1804 Ukrainian as a subject and as language of instruction was banned from schools. In 1811 by the Order of the Russian government the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was closed. The Academy that had been open since 1632 and was the first university in the eastern Europe, was now proclaimed to be outlaw. In 1847 the Brotherhood of Sts Cyril and Methodius was terminated. The same year Taras Shevchenko was arrested and exiled for ten years, and banned for political reasons from writing and painting. In 1862 Pavlo Chubynsky was exiled for seven years out of Ukraine to Arkhangelsk. The Ukrainian magazine Osnova was discontinued. In 1863, the tsarist interior minister Pyotr Valuyev proclaimed in his decree that "there never has been, is not, and never can be a separate Little Russian language". A following ban on Ukrainian books led to Alexander IIs secret Ems Ukaz, which prohibited publication and importation of most Ukrainian-language books, public performances and lectures, and even the printing of Ukrainian texts accompanying musical scores. A period of leniency after 1905 was followed by another strict ban in 1914, which also affected Russian-occupied Galicia.
For much of the 19th century the Austrian authorities demonstrated some preference for Polish culture, but the Ukrainians were relatively free to partake in their own cultural pursuits in Halychyna and Bukovyna, where Ukrainian was widely used in education and in official documents. The suppression by Russia retarded the literary development of the Ukrainian language in Dnipro Ukraine, but there was a constant exchange with Halychyna, and many works were published under Austria and smuggled to the east.
By the time of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the collapse of Austro-Hungary in 1918, the former Ruthenians or Little Russians were ready to openly develop a body of national literature, to institute a Ukrainian-language educational system, and to form an independent state, named Ukraine (the Ukrainian Peoples Republic, shortly joined by the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic). During this brief independent statehood the stature and use of Ukrainian greatly improved.
Speakers in the Russian Empire
Ukrainian speakers in the Russian Empire (1897)
In the Russian Empire Census of 1897 the following picture emerged, with Ukrainian being the second most spoken language of the Russian Empire. According to the Imperial censuss terminology, the Russian language (Русскій) was subdivided into Ukrainian (Малорусскій, Little Russian), what we know as Russian today (Вѣликорусскій, Great Russian), and Belarusian (Бѣлорусскій, White Russian).
The following table shows the distribution of settlement by native language ("по родному языку") in 1897, in Russian Empire governorates (guberniyas) which had more than 100,000 Ukrainian speakers.
Total population Ukrainian speakers Russian speakers Polish speakers
Entire Russian Empire 125,640,021 22,380,551 55,667,469 7,931,307
Urban 16,828,395 1,256,387 8,825,733 1,455,527
Rural 108,811,626 21,124,164 46,841,736 6,475,780
Regions
"European Russia"
incl. Ukraine & Belarus 93,442,864 20,414,866 48,558,721 1,109,934
Vistulan guberniyas 9,402,253 335,337 267,160 6,755,503
Caucasus 9,289,364 1,305,463 1,829,793 25,117
Siberia 5,758,822 223,274 4,423,803 29,177
Central Asia 7,746,718 101,611 587,992 11,576
Subdivisions
Bessarabia 1,935,412 379,698 155,774 11,696
Volyn 2,989,482 2,095,579 104,889 184,161
Voronezh 2,531,253 915,883 1,602,948 1,778
Don Host Province 2,564,238 719,655 1,712,898 3,316
Yekaterinoslav 2,113,674 1,456,369 364,974 12,365
Kiev 3,559,229 2,819,145 209,427 68,791
Kursk 2,371,012 527,778 1,832,498 2,862
Podolia 3,018,299 2,442,819 98,984 69,156
Poltava 2,778,151 2,583,133 72,941 3,891
Taurida 1,447,790 611,121 404,463 10,112
Kharkov 2,492,316 2,009,411 440,936 5,910
Kherson 2,733,612 1,462,039 575,375 30,894
City of Odessa 403,815 37,925 198,233 17,395
Chernigov 2,297,854 1,526,072 495,963 3,302
Lublin 1,160,662 196,476 47,912 729,529
Sedletsk 772,146 107,785 19,613 510,621
Kuban Province 1,918,881 908,818 816,734 2,719
Stavropol 873,301 319,817 482,495 961
Brest-Litovsk district 218.432 140.561 17.759 8.515
Although in the rural regions of the Ukraine provinces, 80% of the inhabitants said that Ukrainian was their native language in the Census of 1897 (for which the results are given above), in the urban regions only 32.5% of the population claimed Ukrainian as their native language. For example, in Odessa, the largest city of Ukraine at this time, only 5.6% of the population said Ukrainian was their native language. Until the 1920s the urban population in Ukraine grew faster than the number of Ukrainian speakers. This implies that there was a (relative) decline in the use of Ukrainian language. For example, in Kiev, the number of people stating that Ukrainian was their native language declined from 30.3% in 1874 to 16.6% in 1917.
Soviet era
The Ukrainian text in this Soviet poster reads: "The Social base of the USSR is an unbreakable union of the workers, peasants and intelligentsia".
During the seven-decade-long Soviet era, the Ukrainian language held the formal position of the principal local language in the Ukrainian SSR. However, practice was often a different story: Ukrainian always had to compete with Russian, and the attitudes of the Soviet leadership towards Ukrainian varied from encouragement and tolerance to discouragement.
Officially, there was no state language in the Soviet Union until the very end when it was proclaimed in 1990 that Russian language is the all-Union state language and that the constituent republics had rights to declare additional state languages within their jurisdictions. Still it was implicitly understood in the hopes of minority nations that Ukrainian would be used in the Ukrainian SSR, Uzbek would be used in the Uzbek SSR, and so on. However, Russian was used in all parts of the Soviet Union and a special term, "a language of inter-ethnic communication" was coined to denote its status. In reality, Russian was in a privileged position in the USSR and was the state official language in everything but formal name—although formally all languages were held up as equal.
Soviet language policy in Ukraine may be divided into the following policy periods:
Ukrainianization and tolerance (1921–1932)
Persecution and Russification (1933–1957)
Khrushchev thaw (1958–1962)
The Shelest period: limited progress (1963–1972)
The Shcherbytsky period: gradual suppression (1973–1989)
Mikhail Gorbachev and perestroika (1990–1991)
Ukrainianization and tolerance
Following the Russian Revolution, the Russian Empire was broken up. In different parts of the former empire, several nations, including Ukrainians, developed a renewed sense of national identity. In the chaotic post-revolutionary years the Ukrainian language gained some usage in government affairs. Initially, this trend continued under the Bolshevik government of the Soviet Union, which in a political struggle to retain its grip over the territory had to encourage the national movements of the former Russian Empire. While trying to ascertain and consolidate its power, the Bolshevik government was by far more concerned about many political oppositions connected to the pre-revolutionary order than about the national movements inside the former empire, where it could always find allies.
The 1921 Soviet recruitment poster. It uses traditional Ukrainian imagery with Ukrainian-language text: "Son! Enroll in the school of Red commanders, and the defence of Soviet Ukraine will be ensured."
The widening use of Ukrainian further developed in the first years of Bolshevik rule into a policy called korenizatsiya. The government pursued a policy of Ukrainianization by lifting a ban on the Ukrainian language. That led to the introduction of an impressive education program which allowed the Ukrainian taught classes and raised the literacy of the Ukrainophone population. This policy was led by Education Commissar Mykola Skrypnyk and was directed to approximate the language to Russian. Newly generated academic efforts from the period of independence were co-opted by the Bolshevik government. The party and government apparatus was mostly Russian-speaking but were encouraged to learn the Ukrainian language. Simultaneously, the newly literate ethnic Ukrainians migrated to the cities, which became rapidly largely Ukrainianized – in both population and in education.
The policy even reached those regions of southern Russian SFSR where the ethnic Ukrainian population was significant, particularly the areas by the Don River and especially Kuban in the North Caucasus. Ukrainian language teachers, just graduated from expanded institutions of higher education in Soviet Ukraine, were dispatched to these regions to staff newly opened Ukrainian schools or to teach Ukrainian as a second language in Russian schools. A string of local Ukrainian-language publications were started and departments of Ukrainian studies were opened in colleges. Overall, these policies were implemented in thirty-five raions (administrative districts) in southern Russia.
Khrushchev thaw
While Russian was a de facto official language of the Soviet Union in all but formal name, all national languages were proclaimed equal. The name and denomination of Soviet banknotes were listed in the languages of all fifteen Soviet republics. On this 1961 one-ruble note, the Ukrainian for "one ruble", один карбованець (odyn karbovanets’), directly follows the Russian один рубль (odin rubl’).
After the death of Stalin (1953), a general policy of relaxing the language policies of the past was implemented (1958 to 1963). The Nikita Khrushchev era which followed saw a policy of relatively lenient concessions to development of the languages on the local and republican level, though its results in Ukraine did not go nearly as far as those of the Soviet policy of Ukrainianization in the 1920s. Journals and encyclopedic publications advanced in the Ukrainian language during the Khrushchev era.
Yet, the 1958 school reform that allowed parents to choose the language of primary instruction for their children, unpopular among the circles of the national intelligentsia in parts of the USSR, meant that non-Russian languages would slowly give way to Russian in light of the pressures of survival and advancement. The gains of the past, already largely reversed by the Stalin era, were offset by the liberal attitude towards the requirement to study the local languages (the requirement to study Russian remained). Parents were usually free to choose the language of study of their children (except in few areas where attending the Ukrainian school might have required a long daily commute) and they often chose Russian, which reinforced the resulting Russification. In this sense, some analysts argue that it was not the "oppression" or "persecution", but rather the lack of protection against the expansion of Russian language that contributed to the relative decline of Ukrainian in 1970s and 1980s. According to this view, it was inevitable that successful careers required a good command of Russian, while knowledge of Ukrainian was not vital, so it was common for Ukrainian parents to send their children to Russian-language schools, even though Ukrainian-language schools were usually available. While in the Russian-language schools within the republic, Ukrainian was supposed to be learned as a second language at comparable level, the instruction of other subjects was in Russian and, as a result, students had a greater command of Russian than Ukrainian on graduation. Additionally, in some areas of the republic, the attitude towards teaching and learning of Ukrainian in schools was relaxed and it was, sometimes, considered a subject of secondary importance and even a waiver from studying it was sometimes given under various, ever expanding, circumstances.
The complete suppression of all expressions of separatism or Ukrainian nationalism also contributed to lessening interest in Ukrainian. Some people who persistently used Ukrainian on a daily basis were often perceived as though they were expressing sympathy towards, or even being members of, the political opposition. This, combined with advantages given by Russian fluency and usage, made Russian the primary language of choice for many Ukrainians, while Ukrainian was more of a hobby. In any event, the mild liberalization in Ukraine and elsewhere was stifled by new suppression of freedoms at the end of the Khrushchev era (1963) when a policy of gradually creeping suppression of Ukrainian was re-instituted.
The next part of the Soviet Ukrainian language policy divides into two eras: first, the Shelest period (early 1960s to early 1970s), which was relatively liberal towards the development of the Ukrainian language. The second era, the policy of Shcherbytsky (early 1970s to early 1990s), was one of gradual suppression of the Ukrainian language.
Shelest period
The Communist Party leader Petro Shelest pursued a policy of defending Ukraines interests within the Soviet Union. He proudly promoted the beauty of the Ukrainian language and developed plans to expand the role of Ukrainian in higher education. He was removed, however, after only a brief tenure, for being too lenient on Ukrainian nationalism.
Shcherbytsky period
The new party boss, Volodymyr Shcherbytsky, purged the local party, was fierce in suppressing dissent, and insisted Russian be spoken at all official functions, even at local levels. His policy of Russification was lessened only slightly after 1985.
Gorbachev and perestroika
The management of dissent by the local Ukrainian Communist Party was more fierce and thorough than in other parts of the Soviet Union. As a result, at the start of the Mikhail Gorbachev reforms, Ukraine under Shcherbytsky was slower to liberalize than Russia itself.
Although Ukrainian still remained the native language for the majority in the nation on the eve of Ukrainian independence, a significant share of ethnic Ukrainians were Russified. In Donetsk there were no Ukrainian language schools and in Kiev only a quarter of children went to Ukrainian language schools.
The Russian language was the dominant vehicle, not just of government function, but of the media, commerce, and modernity itself. This was substantially less the case for western Ukraine, which escaped the artificial famine, Great Purge, and most of Stalinism. And this region became the piedmont of a hearty, if only partial, renaissance of the Ukrainian language during independence.
Independence in the modern era
Fluency in Ukrainian (red column) and Russian (blue column) in 1989 and 2001
Modern signs in the Kiev Metro are in Ukrainian. The evolution in their language followed the changes in the language policies in post-war Ukraine. Originally, all signs and voice announcements in the metro were in Ukrainian, but their language was changed to Russian in the early 1980s, at the height of Shcherbytskys gradual Russification. In the perestroika liberalization of the late 1980s, the signs were changed to bilingual. This was accompanied by bilingual voice announcements in the trains. In the early 1990s, both signs and voice announcements were changed again from bilingual to Ukrainian-only during the derussification campaign that followed Ukraines independence. From 2012 the signs are both in Ukrainian and English.
Since 1991, Ukrainian has been the official state language in Ukraine and the state administration implemented government policies to broaden the use of Ukrainian. The educational system in Ukraine has been transformed over the first decade of independence from a system that is partly Ukrainian to one that is overwhelmingly so. The government has also mandated a progressively increased role for Ukrainian in the media and commerce. In some cases the abrupt changing of the language of instruction in institutions of secondary and higher education led to the charges of Ukrainianization, raised mostly by the Russian-speaking population. This transition however lacked most of the controversies that arose during the de-russification of the other former Soviet Republics.
With time, most residents, including ethnic Russians, people of mixed origin, and Russian-speaking Ukrainians started to self-identify as Ukrainian nationals, even those who remained Russophone. The Russian language however still dominates the print media in most of Ukraine and private radio and TV broadcasting in the eastern, southern, and to a lesser degree central regions. The state-controlled broadcast media have become exclusively Ukrainian. There are few obstacles to the usage of Russian in commerce and it is still occasionally used in government affairs.
In the 2001 census, 67.5% of the country population named Ukrainian as their native language (a 2.8% increase from 1989), while 29.6% named Russian (a 3.2% decrease). It should be noted, though, that for many Ukrainians (of various ethnic descent), the term native language may not necessarily associate with the language they use more frequently. The overwhelming majority of ethnic Ukrainians consider the Ukrainian language native, including those who often speak Russian. According to the official 2001 census data approximately 75% of Kievs population responded "Ukrainian" to the native language (ridna mova) census question, and roughly 25% responded "Russian". On the other hand, when the question "What language do you use in everyday life?" was asked in the sociological survey, the Kievans answers were distributed as follows: "mostly Russian": 52%, "both Russian and Ukrainian in equal measure": 32%, "mostly Ukrainian": 14%, "exclusively Ukrainian": 4.3%. Ethnic minorities, such as Romanians, Tatars and Jews usually use Russian as their lingua franca. But there are tendencies within these minority groups to use Ukrainian. The Jewish writer Olexander Beyderman from the mainly Russian speaking city of Odessa is now writing most of his dramas in Ukrainian. The emotional relationship regarding Ukrainian is changing in southern and eastern areas.
Opposition to expansion of Ukrainian-language teaching is a matter of contention in eastern regions closer to Russia – in May 2008, the Donetsk city council prohibited the creation of any new Ukrainian schools in the city in which 80% of them are Russian-language schools.
Literature and the Ukrainian literary language
Further information: Ukrainian literature
Ukrainian writers and poets
The literary Ukrainian language, which was preceded by Old East Slavic literature, may be subdivided into three stages: old Ukrainian (12th to 14th centuries), middle Ukrainian (14th to 18th centuries), and modern Ukrainian (end of the 18th century to the present). Much literature was written in the periods of the old and middle Ukrainian language, including legal acts, polemical articles, science treatises and fiction of all sorts.
Influential literary figures in the development of modern Ukrainian literature include the philosopher Hryhorii Skovoroda, Ivan Kotlyarevsky, Mykola Kostomarov, Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky, Taras Shevchenko, Ivan Franko, and Lesia Ukrainka. The earliest literary work in the modern Ukrainian language was recorded in 1798 when Ivan Kotlyarevsky, a playwright from Poltava in southeastern Ukraine, published his epic poem, Eneyida, a burlesque in Ukrainian, based on Virgils Aeneid. His book was published in vernacular Ukrainian in a satirical way to avoid being censored, and is the earliest known Ukrainian published book to survive through Imperial and, later, Soviet policies on the Ukrainian language.
Kotlyarevskys work and that of another early writer using the Ukrainian vernacular language, Petro Artemovsky, used the southeastern dialect spoken in the Poltava, Kharkiv and southern Kieven regions of the Russian Empire. This dialect would serve as the basis of the Ukrainian literary language when it was developed by Taras Shevchenko and Panteleimon Kulish in the mid 19th century. In order to raise its status from that of a dialect to that of a language, various elements from folklore and traditional styles were added to it.
The Ukrainian literary language developed further when the Russian state banned the use of the Ukrainian language, prompting many of its writers to move to the western Ukrainian region of Galicia which was under more liberal Austrian rule; after the 1860s the majority of Ukrainian literary works were published in Austrian Galicia. During this period Galician influences were adopted in the Ukrainian literary language, particularly with respect to vocabulary involving law, government, technology, science, and administration.
Current usage
The use of the Ukrainian language is increasing after a long period of decline. Although there are almost fifty million ethnic Ukrainians worldwide, including 37.5 million in Ukraine (77.8% of the total population), the Ukrainian language is prevalent only in western and central Ukraine. In Kiev, both Ukrainian and Russian are spoken, a notable shift from the recent past when the city was primarily Russian speaking. The shift is believed to be caused, largely, by an influx of the rural population and migrants from the western regions of Ukraine but also by some Kievans turning to use the language they speak at home more widely in everyday matters. Public signs and announcements in Kiev are in Ukrainian. In southern and eastern Ukraine, Russian is the prevalent language of the urban population. According to the Ukrainian Census of 2001, 87.8% people living in Ukraine communicate in Ukrainian.
Use of the Ukrainian language in Ukraine can be expected to increase, as the rural population migrates into the cities. In eastern and southern Ukraine, the rural Ukrainophones continue to prefer Russian. Interest in Ukrainian literature is growing rapidly, compensating for the periods when its development was hindered by either policies of direct suppression or lack of the state support.
Dialects
Map of Ukrainian dialects and subdialects (2005).
Northern group
South-eastern group
South-western group
Main article: Ukrainian dialects
Several modern dialects of Ukrainian exist
Northern (Polissian) dialects:
(3) Eastern Polissian is spoken in Chernihiv (excluding the southeastern districts), in the northern part of Sumy, and in the southeastern portion of the Kiev Oblast as well as in the adjacent areas of Russia, which include the southwestern part of the Bryansk Oblast (the area around Starodub), as wel
ukrainian language
زبان اوکراینی ریشه در زبان نیااسلاوی از ایالت قرون‌وسطایی روسیهٔ کیِفی دارد. مرحله پیش‌تر از آن زبان روتنیایی نام داشت. در واقع زبان اوکراینی از نسل زبان گفتاری است که در روسیه کی‌یفی (سده‌های ۱۰ تا ۱۳ میلادی) به‌کار می‌رفت.
این زبان در چندین دوره ممنوعیت در برابر بدخواهی‌ها ایستادگی کرده است و در طی سده‌ها، مردم اوکراین زبان‌شان را به واسطهٔ ترانه‌های فولکلور، رامشگران دوره‌گرد و نویسندگان مشهور پاس داشته‌اند.
محتویات
گویشوران
در حال حاضر زبان اوکراینی در حال پدیدار شدن پس از یک دوره طولانی افول است. تعداد گویشوران زبان اوکراینی در حدود ۳۷ میلیون نفر است. این زبان افزون بر اوکراین، یکی زبان‌های رسمی جمهوری خودمختار دنیستر نیز می‌باشد. اگرچه نزدیک به ۵۰ میلیون نفر اوکراینی در سراسر جهان زندگی می‌کنند، که از این تعداد ۳۷٫۵ میلیون در اوکراین (۷۷٫۸ درصد جمعیت) سکونت دارند، اما زبان اوکراینی فقط در اوکراین غربی رایج است.
عمده کشورهایی که گویشوران زبان اوکراینی را در خود جای داده‌اند از این قرارند:
اوکراین ۳۱۰۵۸٬۰۰۰ نفر
روسیه ۴٬۳۶۳٬۰۰۰ نفر
قزاقستان ۸۹۸٬۰۰۰ نفر
ایالات متحده ۸۴۴٬۰۰۰ نفر
مولداوی ۶۰۰٬۰۰۰ نفر
برزیل ۳۰۰٬۰۰۰ نفر
بلاروس ۲۹۱٬۰۰۰ نفر
کانادا ۲۰۰٬۵۲۵ نفر
ازبکستان ۱۵۳٬۰۰۰ نفر
لهستان ۱۵۰٬۰۰۰ نفر
کاربرد کنونی
در کیف هر دو زبان اوکراینی و روسی صحبت می‌شود، این دگرگونی اخیر برای شهری که در اصل روسی‌زبان بود بسیار قابل ملاحظه است. دلیل عمده این امر ورود جمعیت روستایی و مهاجران از مناطق غربی اوکراین و نیز گرایش برخی از اهالی کیف به تکلم بیشتر این زبان بوده است. در شمال و مرکز کشور، روسی زبان جمعیت شهری است، در حالی که در مناطق روستایی، زبان اوکراینی بیشتر رایج است. در جنوب و شرق اوکراین در تمامی مناطق، حتی نواحی روستایی و نیز در کریمه، زبان روسی کاملا رواج دارد و زبان اوکراینی تقریبا وجود ندارد.
زبان اوکراینی در این کشور رو به گسترش است، روستاییان (که از علاقمندان افراطی زبان اوکراینی هستند) همچنان به شهرهای مرکزی اوکراین مهاجرت می‌کنند و ادبیات سنتی اوکراین نیز رو به توسعه نهاده است. به گویشوران زبان اوکراینی، اوکراینوفون (Ukrainophone) می‌گویند. امروزه تقریبا تمامی مردم اوکراین می‌توانند به زبان اوکراینی سخن بگویند، در عین حال بسیاری از مردم زبان روسی را به روانی صحبت می‌کنند.
پانویس
↑ زبان اوکراینی (انگلیسی) دانشنامه بریتانیکا
منابع
مشارکت‌کنندگان ویکی‌پدیا، «Ukrainian language»، ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی، دانشنامهٔ آزاد. (بازیابی در ۲۵ ژوئن ۲۰۰۸).
این یک نوشتار خُرد است. با گسترش آن به ویکی‌پدیا کمک کنید.
ن • ب • و
زبانها و گویش‌های اسلاوی
اسلاوی شرقی
بلاروسی اسلاوی شرقی باستان† گویش نووگورود باستان† روسی روسین روتنی† اوکراینی
اسلاوی غربی
چکی کاشوبی کنانیک† سورابی پایین پانونی روسین پولابی† لهستانی پومرانی† اسلواکیایی اسلووینسی† سورابی بالا
اسلاوی جنوبی
بلغاری بانات بلغاری اسلاوی کلیسایی مقدونی اسلاوی کلیسایی باستان† زبان صرب‌و‌کرووات (بوسنیایی، بونیه‌واک، کروواتی، مونته‌نگروئی، صربی، شوکاک) اسلاویک یونان اسلونیایی
دیگر
نیااسلاوی† روسه‌نورسک† اسلاووصربی† اسلوویو
رده‌ها: زبان اوکراینی زبان‌های استرالیا زبان‌های اسلاوی شرقی زبان‌های اسلاوی زبان‌های اسلواکی زبان‌های اوکراین زبان‌های ایالات متحده زبان‌های ترنسنیستری ازبان‌های جمهوری آذربایجان زبان‌های روسیه زبان‌های رومانی زبان‌های صربستان زبان‌های کانادازبان‌های کرواسی زبان‌های لهستان زبان‌های مجارستان زبانها
قس عربی
اللغة الأوکرانیة (украї́нська мо́ва)، هی لغة من فرع اللغات السلافیة الشرقیة. وهی اللغة الرسمیة فی أوکرانیا. وتکتب هذه اللغة بالأبجدیة الأوکرانیة وهی أبجدیة مشتقة من الأبجدیة السریلیة.
یعود أصل اللغة الأوکرانیة إلى اللغة السلافیة الشرقیة القدیمة التی کانت لغة رسمیة فی دولة "کییف روس" (880-1240) (Київська Русь) التی کانت قائمة على الأراضی الأوکرانیة بین القرنین العاشر والثالث عشر المیلادی.
اللغة الأوکرانیة القدیمة التی تطورت من اللغة السلافیة الشرقیة کانت تعرف باسم اللغة الروثینیة (Староукраїнська мова). وتعد الأوکرانیة سلیل مباشر من اللغة العامیة المستخدمة فی کییف روس.
محتویات
هیکلیة اللغة
القواعد
الجملة فی اللغة الأوکرانیة تتبع نظام (S.V.O) أی فاعل - فعل - مفعول به. تماماً کاللغة الإنجلیزیة
عدد متکلمی الأوکرانیة
إنّ عدد متکلمی الأوکرانیة تقریبا 51 ملیون شخص، الذی منه 90% مرکّز فی أوکرانیا. الآخرون 10% فی الشتات الأوکرانی، الذی ینتشر على طول عدّة بلدان فی کافة أنحاء العالم، مثل الأرجنتین، بیلوروسیا، البرازیل، کندا، هنغاریا، لاتفیا، بولندا، رومانیا، روسیا والولایات المتّحدة.
من وجهة نظر هیکلیة، یشبه الأوکرانی الروسی فی الغالب، من کلّ اللغات السلافیة الأخرى. بالطبع، هذا أیضا تأثیر الهیمنة الروسیة على أوکرانیا بالإضافة إلى التأثیر الثابت للتجارة والهجرة الروسیة فی المنطقة.
مراجع
^ Ukrainian language, Encyclopædia Britannica
^ Stechishin-1958
^ جذور وفروع اللغة الأوکرانیة internetpolyglot.com
ع • ن • ت
لغات سلافیة
سلافیة غربیة
التشیکیة • الکاشوبیة • الکنعانیة • البولیبیة • البولندیة • البومیرانیة • السیلیزیة • السلوفاکیة • السلوفینسیة • صوربیة (Lower, Upper)
سلافیة شرقیة
البیلاروسیة • Carpathian Rusyn • Iazychie • السلافیة الشرقیة القدیمة • لهجة نوفغورود قدیمة • Pannonian Rusyn • الروسیة • Ruthenian • الأوکرانیة
سلافیة جنوبیة
البلغاریة • لغة سلافونیة الکنیسة القدیمة • مقدونیة • سلافونیة الکنیسة القدیمة • صربیة کرواتیة (البوسنیة • کرواتیة • مونتنغریة • صربیة) • سلوفینیة
أخرى
شبه سلافیة • اللغات السلافیة الصغرى • لغة سلافیة عامة • السلوفیانسکیة
لهجات منفصلة
(اللغات السلافیة الصغرى)
بانات البلغاریة • بورغنلاند الکرواتیة • التشاکافیة • السلوفاکیة الشرقیة • الکایکافیة • اللیتشیة • الکرواتیة المیلیزیة • البریکموریة • الریسیة • اللهجات السلافیة الیونانیة • الشتوکافیة • البولیزیة الغربیة • التورلاکیة
تشیر الکتابات المائلة إلى اللغات المنقرضة.
تصنیفات: لغات اشتقاقیةلغات أسترالیالغات أذربیجانلغات کندالغات کرواتیالغات کازاخستانلغات بولندالغات صربیالغات سلوفاکیالغات الولایات المتحدةلغات المجرلغات أوکرانیالغات روسیالغات سلافیة شرقیة
قس آلمانی
Ukrainisch (Eigenbezeichnung українська (мова)/ukrajinska (mowa), wiss. Transliteration ukrajins’ka mova, veraltet auch als Kleinrussisch und manchmal auch als Ruthenisch bezeichnet) ist eine Sprache aus der ostslawischen Untergruppe des slawischen Zweigs der indogermanischen Sprachen.
Ukrainisch ist nach dem Russischen und Polnischen die drittgrößte slawische Sprache sowie alleinige Amtssprache der Ukraine und wird dort von 35 Millionen Menschen als Muttersprache gesprochen. Daneben gibt es Nicht-Ukrainer, die Ukrainisch als Zweitsprache verwenden.
Ukrainisch wird mit dem kyrillischen Alphabet geschrieben, wobei die ukrainische Version in einigen Buchstaben von der russischen abweicht.
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Geschichte
Verbreitung (Prozentzahl der Sprecher) der ukrainischen Sprache in den Gouvernements des Russischen Reiches nach der offiziellen Statistik 1897
Heutige Verbreitung (Prozentzahl der Muttersprachler) der Ukrainischen Sprache in der Republik Ukraine nach der offiziellen Statistik 2001
Ukrainisch gehört zusammen mit dem Russischen und dem Weißrussischen zur ostslawischen Sprachgruppe.
Die Bezeichnung für das gesamte ostslawische Territorium führte regelmäßig zu Verwechslungen, weil „Rus“ mit Russland gleichgesetzt wurde. So kam es beispielsweise zu den Sprachbezeichnungen „Großrussisch“ für Russisch, „Kleinrussisch“ für Ukrainisch, womit Ukrainisch oftmals als Dialekt oder Unterart des Russischen eingeordnet wurde.
In der ältesten Epoche (ungefähr bis zum 14. Jahrhundert) hatten alle Ostslawen eine gemeinsame Schriftsprache (Altostslawisch), in der mittleren (ca. 15. bis 18. Jahrhundert) benutzten die Vorfahren der heutigen Ukrainer und Weißrussen gemeinsam die ruthenische Sprache.
Gegen Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts entwickelte sich neben dem bis dahin gebräuchlichen Kirchenslawischen eine aus der Volkssprache kommende ukrainische Schriftsprache und Literatur. Im 19. Jahrhundert erlebte die ukrainische Kultur und damit auch ihre Literatursprache eine Blütezeit; die Entwicklung konzentrierte sich weniger auf politische als auf wissenschaftliche Themen. Literaten wie Gogol bevorzugten Russisch.
Dennoch wurde 1876 aus Angst vor separatistischen Bestrebungen von Zar Alexander II. in Bad Ems auf Betreiben der zaristischen Zensurbehörde ein weitreichendes Verbot ukrainischsprachiger Publikationen ausgesprochen (Emser Erlass). Bis 1906 unterlagen ukrainische wissenschaftliche Publikationen, Lesungen, Ausstellungen und Konzerte diesem Diktat. Der bedeutendste ukrainische Dichter Taras Schewtschenko (1814–1861) wurde für seine Texte und Gedichte in die turkmenische Verbannung geschickt.
Geografische Verbreitung der ukrainischen Sprache
In der Karpatoukraine und auf dem Gebiet Ungarns und der späteren Slowakei gab es bereits im 19. Jahrhundert Bestrebungen zu einer eigenen Schriftsprache, die zwar auch auf den örtlichen ukrainischen Dialekten beruhte, sich aber von der ukrainischen Standardsprache unterschied. Diese Bestrebungen haben ab dem Ende der achtziger Jahre des 20. Jahrhunderts wieder zugenommen, ihr Ergebnis war die Kodifikation der karpato-russinischen Sprache auf der Grundlage des Dialekts von Zemplin. Stärker abweichend ist die jugoslawo-russinische Sprache in der Vojvodina, die wegen Gemeinsamkeiten mit dem Slowakischen als Übergangsdialekt zwischen ostslawischer und westslawischer Sprachenfamilie betrachtet werden kann.
Mit der Gründung einer ukrainischen Volksrepublik 1918 wurde Ukrainisch erstmalig zur Staatssprache, später auch in der Ukrainischen Sowjetrepublik. Während der Sowjetzeit war Ukrainisch also nicht verboten, jedoch dominierte die russische Sprache als Verkehrssprache alle wissenschaftlichen und literarischen Arbeiten sowie die Medien. Deshalb unterliegt die Umgangssprache bis heute starken russischen Einflüssen. Dies ist besonders dann bemerkbar, wenn ein Vergleich mit dem Wortschatz der starken ukrainischen Diaspora in Kanada vorgenommen wird: hier tauchen wesentlich weniger Begriffe russischen Ursprungs auf, während „kanadisch-ukrainische“ Wörter im einheimisch-ukrainischen Sprachgebrauch selten benutzt werden oder in der Umgangssprache veraltet und exotisch wirken.
Mit der Unabhängigkeit der Ukraine 1991 wurde Ukrainisch zur Amtssprache des neuen Staates. Es gab hierüber heftige Debatten, da auf dem Staatsgebiet der Ukraine einerseits nach verschiedenen Angaben ca. 22 bis 40 Prozent der Bevölkerung Russen sind, andererseits auch viele Ukrainer, besonders im Osten des Landes, ausschließlich russisch sprechen. Eine im ganzen Land verbreitete (seit der Unabhängigkeit mit fallender Tendenz), nur mündlich verwendete Mischform des Ukrainischen und Russischen ist der Surschyk.
Aufgrund dieser historischen Entwicklung ist die Sprache für viele Ukrainer bis heute ein hochpolitisches Thema, das manchmal vehement diskutiert wird. Seit der Unabhängigkeit setzte eine Phase der Ukrainisierung ein, aber 2012 wurde der russischen Sprache in 13 der 27 Regionen des Landes wieder ein offizieller Status zugestanden.
Alphabet
Das heutige ukrainische Alphabet mit der wissenschaftlichen Transliteration und der deutschen Transkription:
Groß (HTML-Entity) Klein (HTML-Entity) wissenschaftliche
Transliteration deutsche
Transkription
А (А) а (а) A a A a
Б (Б) б (б) B b B b
В (В) в (в) V v W w
Г (Г) г (г) H h H h
Ґ (Ґ) ґ (ґ) G g G g
Д (Д) д (д) D d D d
Е (Е) е (е) E e E e
Є (Є) є (є) Je je Je je
Ж (Ж) ж (ж) Ž ž Sch (Zh) sch (zh)
З (З) з (з) Z z S s
И (И) и (и) Y y Y y
І (І) і (і) I i I i
Ї (Ї) ї (ї) Ji ji Ji ji
Й (Й) й (й) J j J j
К (К) к (к) K k K k (statt ks auch x)
Л (Л) л (л) L l L l
М (М) м (м) M m M m
Н (Н) н (н) N n N n
О (О) о (о) O o O o
П (П) п (п) P p P p
Р (Р) р (р) R r R r
С (С) с (с) S s S s (zwischen Vokalen auch ss)
Т (Т) т (т) T t T t
У (У) у (у) U u U u
Ф (Ф) ф (ф) F f F f
Х (Х) х (х) Ch ch Ch ch
Ц (Ц) ц (ц) C c Z z
Ч (Ч) ч (ч) Č č Tsch tsch
Ш (Ш) ш (ш) Š š Sch sch
Щ (Щ) щ (щ) Šč šč Schtsch schtsch (Stsch stsch)
ь (ь) ’ bzw. j 1 (Weichheitszeichen) (–) bzw. j
Ю (Ю) ю (ю) Ju ju Ju ju
Я (Я) я (я) Ja ja Ja ja
’ ’ (Apostroph) 2 (–)
Hinweise:
1: nur nach Konsonanten; ein Großbuchstabe existiert nicht; palatisiert den vorangehenden Konsonanten; „j“ vor „o“, sonst (im Auslaut und vor Konsonanten) „’“; in der Transkription „j“ vor „o“, sonst nicht wiedergegeben
2: nur zwischen Konsonanten und „j“ + Vokal; in der Transkription gewöhnlich nicht wiedergegeben
Wortschatz und Aussprache
Aufgrund der relativ späten Differenzierung der einzelnen slawischen Sprachen aus dem gemeinsamen Ursprung Urslawisch ist der gemeinsame Wortschatz vergleichsweise groß, er beträgt etwa zwei Drittel. Ukrainisch unterscheidet sich in Wortschatz, Lautbildung und Satzbau vom Russischen etwas stärker als Weißrussisch und hat darüber hinaus viele Lehnwörter aus dem Polnischen.
Im direkten Vergleich mit der russischen Sprache nennt J. B. Rudnyckyj (Lehrbuch der ukrainischen Sprache, Wiesbaden 1964) unter anderem folgende Lautverschiebungen (jeweils das erste Wort russisch und das zweite ukrainisch):
Itavismus: die Vokale e und o werden in geschlossenen Silben zu i
Bsp.: Львов (Lwow) – Львів (Lwiw), кошка (koschka – Katze) – кішка (kiška)
Ikavismus: der „jat“-Laut je wird zu i
Bsp.: месяц (mjesjaz – Monat, Mond) – місяць (misjaz), медь (Mjed – Kupfer) – мідь (Mid)
harte Konsonanten vor dem e
Bsp.: весна (vjesná – Frühling) – весна (vesna), перед (pjered – vor) – перед (pered)
Verschmelzung der altslawischen Laute i und ы zu и
Bsp.: пиво (pívo – Bier) – пиво (pyvo), нитка (nítka) – нитка (nytka)
Entwicklung des g-Lauts zu h
Bsp.: голова (galavá) – Kopf – голова (holova), горло (górlo Kehle, Hals) – горло (horlo)
die Vokalisierung des l-Lautes, geschrieben в
Bsp.: пил (pil – er trank) – пив (pyv), брал (bral – er nahm) – брав (brav), волк (volk – Wolf) – вовк (vovk).
Ein Beispiel für Unterschiede im Wortschatz ist das Verb heiraten:
russisch: жениться (für den Mann; Wortstamm жена – Frau), выходить замуж (für die Frau; wörtlich: hinter den Mann treten)
ukrainisch: одружуватися (für beide Geschlechter; Wortstamm дружба – Freundschaft, auch дружина - Gattin)
Grammatik
Siehe Hauptartikel: Ukrainische Grammatik.
Die ukrainische Sprache unterscheidet sieben Fälle (відмінки):
Nominativ (називний відмінок)
Genitiv (родовий відмінок)
Dativ (давальний відмінок)
Akkusativ (знахідний відмінок)
Instrumentalis (орудний відмінок)
Lokativ (місцевий відмінок), entspricht dem Russischen Präpositiv
Vokativ (кличний відмінок), reine Anredeform
Bei der Flexion der Substantive unterscheidet man neben dem Terminus „Deklination“ die sogenannten Deklinationsklassen (відміна), wobei diese zusätzlich zum grammatischen Genus die Flexion bestimmen. Darüber hinaus werden innerhalb einiger Deklinationsklassen Gruppen unterschieden, die sich durch die Art ihrer Endungen (hart, weich, gemischt) charakterisieren.
Eine Eigenheit ukrainischer Adjektive ist die Bildung von Formen, die eine emotionale Einstellung zu Personen und Gegenständen kennzeichnen; diese kann verkleinernd, liebkosend, vergrößernd oder vergröbernd sein. So wird zum Beispiel das Adjektiv „schön“ (гарний) durch die Form гарненький „verzärtlicht“ (siehe Diminutiv bei Substantiven). Die Adjektive werden ebenfalls in zwei Gruppen (hart und weich) dekliniert.
Während man im Ukrainischen nur drei Zeitkategorien (Vergangenheit, Gegenwart, Zukunft) des Verbs unterscheidet, spielt die Kategorie der „Aktionsart“ (Aspekt) eine große Rolle (wie auch in anderen slawischen Sprachen). Jedes Verb existiert in zwei Aspekten, dem unvollendeten und dem vollendeten Aspekt. In ihrer lexikologischen Bedeutung sind diese Aspektpaare identisch. Die jeweils imperfekte Verbform drückt eine unvollendete, in der Zeit nicht begrenzte Handlung in Vergangenheit, Gegenwart oder Zukunft aus. Die perfekte Verbform dagegen kommt nur im Präteritum und Präsens vor, wobei das Präsens die grammatische Zukunft ausdrückt. Diese Besonderheit des Verbs kann viele verschiedene Funktionen und Merkmale annehmen, die dem Nicht-Muttersprachler schwer zu vermitteln sind; der Bedeutungsunterschied kann manchmal nur aus dem Kontext verstanden werden.
Literatur
Svetlana Amir-Babenko, Franz Pfliegl, Praktische Kurzgrammatik der ukrainischen Sprache, Buske, Hamburg 2005, 978-3-87548-371-0
Svetlana Amir-Babenko, Lehrbuch der ukrainischen Sprache, Buske, Hamburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-87548-479-3
Quellenangaben
↑
Weblinks
Wiktionary: Ukrainisch – Bedeutungserklärungen, Wortherkunft, Synonyme, Übersetzungen
Commons: Ukrainische Sprache – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien
Commons: Ukrainische Aussprache – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien
Eintrag zur ukrainischen Sprache in der Enzyklopädie des Europäischen Ostens (PDF; 425 kB)
Ukrainisches Vokabeltraining
Online-Wörterbuch englisch-ukrainisch-englisch
Ausklappen
Schwesterprojekte in ukrainischer Sprache
Ausklappen
Slawische Sprachen
Kategorien: Ukrainische SpracheEinzelsprache
قس انگلیسی
Ukrainian (украї́нська мо́ва / ukrayinska mova, ˈmɔwɑ, formerly Ruthenian - ру́ська, руси́нська мо́ва / ruska, rusynska mova) is a member of the East Slavic subgroup of the Slavic languages. It is the official state language of Ukraine and the principal language of the Ukrainians. Written Ukrainian uses a variant of the Cyrillic script.
The Ukrainian language traces its origins to the Old East Slavic of the early medieval state of Kievan Rus. Ukrainian is a lineal descendant of the colloquial language used in Kievan Rus (10th–13th century). From 1804 until the Russian Revolution Ukrainian was banned from schools in the Russian Empire of which Ukraine was a part at the time. It has always maintained a sufficient base in Western Ukraine where the language was never banned in its folklore songs, itinerant musicians, and prominent authors.
The standard Ukrainian language is regulated by the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NANU), particularly by its Institute for the Ukrainian Language, Ukrainian language-informatical fund, and Potebnya Institute of Language Studies. Ukrainian, Russian, Belarusian, and Rusyn have a high degree of mutual intelligibility. Lexically, the closest to Ukrainian is Belarusian (84 % of common vocabulary), followed by Polish (70 %), Serbo-Croatian (68 %), Slovak (66 %) and Russian (62 %).
Contents
Linguistic development of the Ukrainian language
Theories concerning the Ukrainian languages development
A point of view developed during the 19th and 20th centuries by linguists of Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union. Like Lomonosov, they assumed the existence of a common language spoken by East Slavs in the past. But unlike Lomonosovs hypothesis, this theory does not view Polonization or any other external influence as the main driving force that led to the formation of three different languages: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian from the common Old East Slavic language. This general point of view is the most accepted amongst academics world-wide, particularly outside Ukraine. The supporters of this theory disagree, however, about the time when the different languages were formed.needed
Soviet scholars set the divergence between Ukrainian and Russian only at later time periods (14th through 16th centuries). According to this view, Old East Slavic diverged into Belarusian and Ukrainian to the west (collectively, the Ruthenian language of the 15th to 18th centuries), and Old Russian to the north-east, after the political boundaries of Kievan Rus were redrawn in the 14th century. During the time of the incorporation of Ruthenia (Ukraine and Belarus) into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Ukrainian and Belarusian diverged into identifiably separate languages.
Some scholars see a divergence between the language of Galicia-Volhynia and the language of Novgorod-Suzdal by the 12th century, assuming that before the 12th century, the two languages were practically indistinguishable. This point of view is, however, at variance with some historical data. In fact, several East Slavic tribes, such as Polans, Drevlyans, Severians, Dulebes (that later likely became Volhynians and Buzhans), White Croats, Tiverians and Ulichs lived on the territory of todays Ukraine long before the 12th century. Notably, some Ukrainian features were recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic as far back as the language can be documented.
Some researchers, while admitting the differences between the dialects spoken by East Slavic tribes in the 10th and 11th centuries, still consider them as "regional manifestations of a common language" (see, for instance, the article by Vasyl Nimchuk). In contrast, Ahatanhel Krymsky and Alexei Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the common spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century.
Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky went even further, denying the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko, Vsevolod Hantsov, Olena Kurylo, Ivan Ohienko and others. According to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to an intensive migration of the population within the territory of todays Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was also confirmed by Yuri Shevelovs phonological studies and, although it is gaining a number of supporters among Ukrainian academics, it is not seriously regarded outside Ukraine.
Outside Ukraine, however, such nationalist-based theories that distance Ukrainian from East Slavic have found few followers among international scholars and most academics continue to place Ukrainian firmly within the East Slavic group, descended from Proto-East Slavic, with close ties to Belarusian and Russian.
Origins and developments during medieval times
As the result of close Slavic contacts with the remnants of Scythian and Sarmatian population north of the Black Sea, lasting into the early Middle Ages, is explained the appearance of voiced fricative γ(h) in modern Ukrainian and some southern Russian dialects, that initially emerged in Scythian and the related eastern Iranian dialects from earlier common Proto-Indo-European g* and gh*.
Ukrainian traces its roots through the mid-14th century Ruthenian language, a chancellery language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, back to the early written evidences of 10th century Rus. Until the end of the 18th century, the written language used in Ukraine was quite different from the spoken, which is one of the key difficulties in tracing the origin of the Ukrainian language more precisely. There is little direct data on the origin of the Ukrainian language. Scholars rely on indirect methods: analysis of typical mistakes in old manuscripts, comparison of linguistic data with historical, anthropological, archaeological ones, etc. Several theories of the origin of Ukrainian language exist. Some early theories have been proven wrong by modern linguistics (yet continue to be cited), while others are still being discussed in the academic community.needed
It is believedwhom? that up to the 14th century, ancestors of the modern Ukrainians spoke dialects of the language known collectively as Old East Slavic (today known as Ruthenian language), also spoken by other East Slavs of Kievan Rus. That mainly spoken tongue was used alongside Old Church Slavonic, the literary language of all Slavs. The earliest written record of the language is an amphora found at Gnezdovo and tentatively dated to the mid-10th century. Until the 15th century, Gnezdovo was a part of the independent Smolensk principality.needed
It is knownwhom? that between 9th and 13th century, many areas of modern Ukraine, Belarus and parts of Russia were united in a common entity now referred to as Rus. Surviving documents from the Kievan Rus period are written in either Old East Slavic or Old Church Slavonic language or their mixture. Different earldoms of Rus had different dialects of Old East Slavic. These languages are considerably different from both modern Ukrainian and Russian, but similar enough that a modern educated Ukrainian or Russian reader can understand 11th-century texts reasonably well.needed
During the 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of Galicia-Vollhynia, German words began to appear in the language spoken in Ukraine. Their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts. Examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh (roof), rura (pipe), rynok (market), kushnir (furrier), and majster (master or craftsman).
Developments under Poland and Lithuania
In the 13th century, eastern parts of Rus (including Moscow) came under Tatar yoke until their unification under the Tsardom of Muscovy, whereas the south-western areas (including Kiev) were incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. For the following four centuries, the language of the two regions evolved in relative isolation from each other. Direct written evidence of the existence of the Ukrainian language dates to the late 16th century. By the 16th century, a peculiar official language was formed: a mixture of Old Church Slavonic, Ruthenian and Polish with the influence of the last of these three gradually increasing. Documents soon took on many Polish characteristics superimposed on Ruthenian phonetics. Polish rule and education also involved significant exposure to the Latin language. Much of the influence of Poland on the development of the Ukrainian language has been attributed to this period and is reflected in multiple words and constructions used in everyday Ukrainian speech that were taken from Polish or Latin. Examples of Polish words adopted from this period include zavzhdy (always; taken from old Polish word zawżdy) and obitsiaty (to promise; taken from Polish obiecać) and from Latin raptom (suddenly) and meta (aim or goal).
Significant contact with Tatars and Turks resulted in many Turkic words, particularly those involving military matters and steppe industry, being adopted into the Ukrainian language. Examples include torba (bag) and tyutyun (tobacco).
By the mid-17th century, the linguistic divergence between the Ukrainian and Russian languages was so acute that there was a need for translators during negotiations for the Treaty of Pereyaslav, between Bohdan Khmelnytsky, head of the Zaporozhian Host, and the Russian state.
History of the Ukrainian spoken languages usage
See also: History of Ukraine
Percentage of people with Ukrainian as their native language according to 2001 census (by region).
Rus and Galicia-Volhynia
During the Khazar period, the territory of Ukraine, settled at that time by Iranian (post-Scythian), Turkic (post-Hunnic, proto-Bulgarian), and Uralic (proto-Hungarian) tribes, was progressively Slavicized by several waves of migration from the Slavic north. Finally, the Varangian ruler of Novgorod, called Oleg, seized Kiev (Kyiv) and established the political entity of Rus. Some theorists see an early Ukrainian stage in language development here; others term this era Old East Slavic or Old Ruthenian/Rusian. Russian theorists tend to amalgamate Rus to the modern nation of Russia, and call this linguistic era Old Russian. Some hold that linguistic unity over Rus was not present, but tribal diversity in language was.
The era of Rus is the subject of some linguistic controversy, as the language of much of the literature was purely or heavily Old Slavonic. At the same time, most legal documents throughout Rus were written in a purely Old East Slavic language (supposed to be based on the Kiev dialect of that epoch). Scholarly controversies over earlier development aside, literary records from Rus testify to substantial divergence between Russian and Ruthenian/Rusyn forms of the Ukrainian language as early as the era of Rus. One vehicle of this divergence (or widening divergence) was the large scale appropriation of the Old Slavonic language in the northern reaches of Rus and of the Polish language at the territory of modern Ukraine. As evidenced by the contemporary chronicles, the ruling princes of Galich (modern Halych) and Kiev called themselves "People of Rus" (with the exact Cyrillic spelling of the adjective from of Rus varying among sources), which contrasts sharply with the lack of ethnic self-appellation for the area until the mid-19th century.
One prominent example of this north-south divergence in Rus from around 1200, was the epic, The Tale of Igors Campaign. Like other examples of Old Rus literature (for example, Byliny, the Primary Chronicle), which survived only in Northern Russia (Upper Volga belt) and was probably created there. It shows dialectal features characteristic of Severian dialect with the exception of two words which were wrongly interpreted by early 19th century German scholars as Polish loan words.needed
Under Lithuania/Poland, Muscovy/Russia, and Austro-Hungary
Further information: Name of Ukraine
Miniature of St Luke from the Peresopnytsia Gospels (1561).
After the fall of Galicia–Volhynia, Ukrainians mainly fell under the rule of Lithuania, then Poland. Local autonomy of both rule and language was a marked feature of Lithuanian rule. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Old Slavic became the language of the chancellery and gradually evolved into the Ruthenian language. Polish rule, which came mainly later, was accompanied by a more assimilationist policy. By the 1569 Union of Lublin that formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a significant part of Ukrainian territory was moved from Lithuanian rule to Polish administration, resulting in cultural Polonization and visible attempts to colonize Ukraine by the Polish nobility. Many Ukrainian nobles learned the Polish language and adopted Catholicism during that period. Lower classes were less affected because literacy was common only in the upper class and clergy. The latter were also under significant Polish pressure after the Union with the Catholic Church. Most of the educational system was gradually Polonized. In Ruthenia, the language of administrative documents gradually shifted towards Polish.
The Polish language has had heavy influences on Ukrainian (and on Belarusian).needed As the Ukrainian language developed further, some borrowings from Tatar and Turkish occurred. Ukrainian culture and language flourished in the sixteenth and first half of the 17th century, when Ukraine was part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Among many schools established in that time, the Kiev-Mogila Collegium (the predecessor of modern Kyiv-Mohyla Academy), founded by the Orthodox Metropolitan Peter Mogila (Petro Mohyla), was the most important. At that time languages were associated more with religions: Catholics spoke Polish language, Orthodox spoke Rusyn language.
After the Treaty of Pereyaslav, Ukrainian high culture was sent into a long period of steady decline. In the aftermath, the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was taken over by the Russian Empire and closed down later in 19th century. Most of the remaining Ukrainian schools also switched to Polish or Russian, in the territories controlled by these respective countries, which was followed by a new wave of Polonization and Russification of the native nobility. Gradually the official language of Ukrainian provinces under Poland was changed to Polish, while the upper classes in the Russian part of Ukraine used Russian widely.
During the 19th century, a revival of Ukrainian self-identity manifested itself in the literary classes of both Russian-Empire Dnieper Ukraine and Austrian Galicia. The Brotherhood of Sts Cyril and Methodius in Kiev applied an old word for the Cossack motherland, Ukrajina, as a self-appellation for the nation of Ukrainians, and Ukrajins’ka mova for the language. Many writers published works in the Romantic tradition of Europe demonstrating that Ukrainian was not merely a language of the village, but suitable for literary pursuits.
However, in the Russian Empire expressions of Ukrainian culture and especially language were repeatedly persecuted, for fear that a self-aware Ukrainian nation would threaten the unity of the Empire. In 1804 Ukrainian as a subject and as language of instruction was banned from schools. In 1811 by the Order of the Russian government the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was closed. The Academy that had been open since 1632 and was the first university in the eastern Europe, was now proclaimed to be outlaw. In 1847 the Brotherhood of Sts Cyril and Methodius was terminated. The same year Taras Shevchenko was arrested and exiled for ten years, and banned for political reasons from writing and painting. In 1862 Pavlo Chubynsky was exiled for seven years out of Ukraine to Arkhangelsk. The Ukrainian magazine Osnova was discontinued. In 1863, the tsarist interior minister Pyotr Valuyev proclaimed in his decree that "there never has been, is not, and never can be a separate Little Russian language". A following ban on Ukrainian books led to Alexander IIs secret Ems Ukaz, which prohibited publication and importation of most Ukrainian-language books, public performances and lectures, and even the printing of Ukrainian texts accompanying musical scores. A period of leniency after 1905 was followed by another strict ban in 1914, which also affected Russian-occupied Galicia.
For much of the 19th century the Austrian authorities demonstrated some preference for Polish culture, but the Ukrainians were relatively free to partake in their own cultural pursuits in Halychyna and Bukovyna, where Ukrainian was widely used in education and in official documents. The suppression by Russia retarded the literary development of the Ukrainian language in Dnipro Ukraine, but there was a constant exchange with Halychyna, and many works were published under Austria and smuggled to the east.
By the time of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the collapse of Austro-Hungary in 1918, the former Ruthenians or Little Russians were ready to openly develop a body of national literature, to institute a Ukrainian-language educational system, and to form an independent state, named Ukraine (the Ukrainian Peoples Republic, shortly joined by the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic). During this brief independent statehood the stature and use of Ukrainian greatly improved.
Speakers in the Russian Empire
Ukrainian speakers in the Russian Empire (1897)
In the Russian Empire Census of 1897 the following picture emerged, with Ukrainian being the second most spoken language of the Russian Empire. According to the Imperial censuss terminology, the Russian language (Русскій) was subdivided into Ukrainian (Малорусскій, Little Russian), what we know as Russian today (Вѣликорусскій, Great Russian), and Belarusian (Бѣлорусскій, White Russian).
The following table shows the distribution of settlement by native language ("по родному языку") in 1897, in Russian Empire governorates (guberniyas) which had more than 100,000 Ukrainian speakers.
Total population Ukrainian speakers Russian speakers Polish speakers
Entire Russian Empire 125,640,021 22,380,551 55,667,469 7,931,307
Urban 16,828,395 1,256,387 8,825,733 1,455,527
Rural 108,811,626 21,124,164 46,841,736 6,475,780
Regions
"European Russia"
incl. Ukraine & Belarus 93,442,864 20,414,866 48,558,721 1,109,934
Vistulan guberniyas 9,402,253 335,337 267,160 6,755,503
Caucasus 9,289,364 1,305,463 1,829,793 25,117
Siberia 5,758,822 223,274 4,423,803 29,177
Central Asia 7,746,718 101,611 587,992 11,576
Subdivisions
Bessarabia 1,935,412 379,698 155,774 11,696
Volyn 2,989,482 2,095,579 104,889 184,161
Voronezh 2,531,253 915,883 1,602,948 1,778
Don Host Province 2,564,238 719,655 1,712,898 3,316
Yekaterinoslav 2,113,674 1,456,369 364,974 12,365
Kiev 3,559,229 2,819,145 209,427 68,791
Kursk 2,371,012 527,778 1,832,498 2,862
Podolia 3,018,299 2,442,819 98,984 69,156
Poltava 2,778,151 2,583,133 72,941 3,891
Taurida 1,447,790 611,121 404,463 10,112
Kharkov 2,492,316 2,009,411 440,936 5,910
Kherson 2,733,612 1,462,039 575,375 30,894
City of Odessa 403,815 37,925 198,233 17,395
Chernigov 2,297,854 1,526,072 495,963 3,302
Lublin 1,160,662 196,476 47,912 729,529
Sedletsk 772,146 107,785 19,613 510,621
Kuban Province 1,918,881 908,818 816,734 2,719
Stavropol 873,301 319,817 482,495 961
Brest-Litovsk district 218.432 140.561 17.759 8.515
Although in the rural regions of the Ukraine provinces, 80% of the inhabitants said that Ukrainian was their native language in the Census of 1897 (for which the results are given above), in the urban regions only 32.5% of the population claimed Ukrainian as their native language. For example, in Odessa, the largest city of Ukraine at this time, only 5.6% of the population said Ukrainian was their native language. Until the 1920s the urban population in Ukraine grew faster than the number of Ukrainian speakers. This implies that there was a (relative) decline in the use of Ukrainian language. For example, in Kiev, the number of people stating that Ukrainian was their native language declined from 30.3% in 1874 to 16.6% in 1917.
Soviet era
The Ukrainian text in this Soviet poster reads: "The Social base of the USSR is an unbreakable union of the workers, peasants and intelligentsia".
During the seven-decade-long Soviet era, the Ukrainian language held the formal position of the principal local language in the Ukrainian SSR. However, practice was often a different story: Ukrainian always had to compete with Russian, and the attitudes of the Soviet leadership towards Ukrainian varied from encouragement and tolerance to discouragement.
Officially, there was no state language in the Soviet Union until the very end when it was proclaimed in 1990 that Russian language is the all-Union state language and that the constituent republics had rights to declare additional state languages within their jurisdictions. Still it was implicitly understood in the hopes of minority nations that Ukrainian would be used in the Ukrainian SSR, Uzbek would be used in the Uzbek SSR, and so on. However, Russian was used in all parts of the Soviet Union and a special term, "a language of inter-ethnic communication" was coined to denote its status. In reality, Russian was in a privileged position in the USSR and was the state official language in everything but formal name—although formally all languages were held up as equal.
Soviet language policy in Ukraine may be divided into the following policy periods:
Ukrainianization and tolerance (1921–1932)
Persecution and Russification (1933–1957)
Khrushchev thaw (1958–1962)
The Shelest period: limited progress (1963–1972)
The Shcherbytsky period: gradual suppression (1973–1989)
Mikhail Gorbachev and perestroika (1990–1991)
Ukrainianization and tolerance
Following the Russian Revolution, the Russian Empire was broken up. In different parts of the former empire, several nations, including Ukrainians, developed a renewed sense of national identity. In the chaotic post-revolutionary years the Ukrainian language gained some usage in government affairs. Initially, this trend continued under the Bolshevik government of the Soviet Union, which in a political struggle to retain its grip over the territory had to encourage the national movements of the former Russian Empire. While trying to ascertain and consolidate its power, the Bolshevik government was by far more concerned about many political oppositions connected to the pre-revolutionary order than about the national movements inside the former empire, where it could always find allies.
The 1921 Soviet recruitment poster. It uses traditional Ukrainian imagery with Ukrainian-language text: "Son! Enroll in the school of Red commanders, and the defence of Soviet Ukraine will be ensured."
The widening use of Ukrainian further developed in the first years of Bolshevik rule into a policy called korenizatsiya. The government pursued a policy of Ukrainianization by lifting a ban on the Ukrainian language. That led to the introduction of an impressive education program which allowed the Ukrainian taught classes and raised the literacy of the Ukrainophone population. This policy was led by Education Commissar Mykola Skrypnyk and was directed to approximate the language to Russian. Newly generated academic efforts from the period of independence were co-opted by the Bolshevik government. The party and government apparatus was mostly Russian-speaking but were encouraged to learn the Ukrainian language. Simultaneously, the newly literate ethnic Ukrainians migrated to the cities, which became rapidly largely Ukrainianized – in both population and in education.
The policy even reached those regions of southern Russian SFSR where the ethnic Ukrainian population was significant, particularly the areas by the Don River and especially Kuban in the North Caucasus. Ukrainian language teachers, just graduated from expanded institutions of higher education in Soviet Ukraine, were dispatched to these regions to staff newly opened Ukrainian schools or to teach Ukrainian as a second language in Russian schools. A string of local Ukrainian-language publications were started and departments of Ukrainian studies were opened in colleges. Overall, these policies were implemented in thirty-five raions (administrative districts) in southern Russia.
Khrushchev thaw
While Russian was a de facto official language of the Soviet Union in all but formal name, all national languages were proclaimed equal. The name and denomination of Soviet banknotes were listed in the languages of all fifteen Soviet republics. On this 1961 one-ruble note, the Ukrainian for "one ruble", один карбованець (odyn karbovanets’), directly follows the Russian один рубль (odin rubl’).
After the death of Stalin (1953), a general policy of relaxing the language policies of the past was implemented (1958 to 1963). The Nikita Khrushchev era which followed saw a policy of relatively lenient concessions to development of the languages on the local and republican level, though its results in Ukraine did not go nearly as far as those of the Soviet policy of Ukrainianization in the 1920s. Journals and encyclopedic publications advanced in the Ukrainian language during the Khrushchev era.
Yet, the 1958 school reform that allowed parents to choose the language of primary instruction for their children, unpopular among the circles of the national intelligentsia in parts of the USSR, meant that non-Russian languages would slowly give way to Russian in light of the pressures of survival and advancement. The gains of the past, already largely reversed by the Stalin era, were offset by the liberal attitude towards the requirement to study the local languages (the requirement to study Russian remained). Parents were usually free to choose the language of study of their children (except in few areas where attending the Ukrainian school might have required a long daily commute) and they often chose Russian, which reinforced the resulting Russification. In this sense, some analysts argue that it was not the "oppression" or "persecution", but rather the lack of protection against the expansion of Russian language that contributed to the relative decline of Ukrainian in 1970s and 1980s. According to this view, it was inevitable that successful careers required a good command of Russian, while knowledge of Ukrainian was not vital, so it was common for Ukrainian parents to send their children to Russian-language schools, even though Ukrainian-language schools were usually available. While in the Russian-language schools within the republic, Ukrainian was supposed to be learned as a second language at comparable level, the instruction of other subjects was in Russian and, as a result, students had a greater command of Russian than Ukrainian on graduation. Additionally, in some areas of the republic, the attitude towards teaching and learning of Ukrainian in schools was relaxed and it was, sometimes, considered a subject of secondary importance and even a waiver from studying it was sometimes given under various, ever expanding, circumstances.
The complete suppression of all expressions of separatism or Ukrainian nationalism also contributed to lessening interest in Ukrainian. Some people who persistently used Ukrainian on a daily basis were often perceived as though they were expressing sympathy towards, or even being members of, the political opposition. This, combined with advantages given by Russian fluency and usage, made Russian the primary language of choice for many Ukrainians, while Ukrainian was more of a hobby. In any event, the mild liberalization in Ukraine and elsewhere was stifled by new suppression of freedoms at the end of the Khrushchev era (1963) when a policy of gradually creeping suppression of Ukrainian was re-instituted.
The next part of the Soviet Ukrainian language policy divides into two eras: first, the Shelest period (early 1960s to early 1970s), which was relatively liberal towards the development of the Ukrainian language. The second era, the policy of Shcherbytsky (early 1970s to early 1990s), was one of gradual suppression of the Ukrainian language.
Shelest period
The Communist Party leader Petro Shelest pursued a policy of defending Ukraines interests within the Soviet Union. He proudly promoted the beauty of the Ukrainian language and developed plans to expand the role of Ukrainian in higher education. He was removed, however, after only a brief tenure, for being too lenient on Ukrainian nationalism.
Shcherbytsky period
The new party boss, Volodymyr Shcherbytsky, purged the local party, was fierce in suppressing dissent, and insisted Russian be spoken at all official functions, even at local levels. His policy of Russification was lessened only slightly after 1985.
Gorbachev and perestroika
The management of dissent by the local Ukrainian Communist Party was more fierce and thorough than in other parts of the Soviet Union. As a result, at the start of the Mikhail Gorbachev reforms, Ukraine under Shcherbytsky was slower to liberalize than Russia itself.
Although Ukrainian still remained the native language for the majority in the nation on the eve of Ukrainian independence, a significant share of ethnic Ukrainians were Russified. In Donetsk there were no Ukrainian language schools and in Kiev only a quarter of children went to Ukrainian language schools.
The Russian language was the dominant vehicle, not just of government function, but of the media, commerce, and modernity itself. This was substantially less the case for western Ukraine, which escaped the artificial famine, Great Purge, and most of Stalinism. And this region became the piedmont of a hearty, if only partial, renaissance of the Ukrainian language during independence.
Independence in the modern era
Fluency in Ukrainian (red column) and Russian (blue column) in 1989 and 2001
Modern signs in the Kiev Metro are in Ukrainian. The evolution in their language followed the changes in the language policies in post-war Ukraine. Originally, all signs and voice announcements in the metro were in Ukrainian, but their language was changed to Russian in the early 1980s, at the height of Shcherbytskys gradual Russification. In the perestroika liberalization of the late 1980s, the signs were changed to bilingual. This was accompanied by bilingual voice announcements in the trains. In the early 1990s, both signs and voice announcements were changed again from bilingual to Ukrainian-only during the derussification campaign that followed Ukraines independence. From 2012 the signs are both in Ukrainian and English.
Since 1991, Ukrainian has been the official state language in Ukraine and the state administration implemented government policies to broaden the use of Ukrainian. The educational system in Ukraine has been transformed over the first decade of independence from a system that is partly Ukrainian to one that is overwhelmingly so. The government has also mandated a progressively increased role for Ukrainian in the media and commerce. In some cases the abrupt changing of the language of instruction in institutions of secondary and higher education led to the charges of Ukrainianization, raised mostly by the Russian-speaking population. This transition however lacked most of the controversies that arose during the de-russification of the other former Soviet Republics.
With time, most residents, including ethnic Russians, people of mixed origin, and Russian-speaking Ukrainians started to self-identify as Ukrainian nationals, even those who remained Russophone. The Russian language however still dominates the print media in most of Ukraine and private radio and TV broadcasting in the eastern, southern, and to a lesser degree central regions. The state-controlled broadcast media have become exclusively Ukrainian. There are few obstacles to the usage of Russian in commerce and it is still occasionally used in government affairs.
In the 2001 census, 67.5% of the country population named Ukrainian as their native language (a 2.8% increase from 1989), while 29.6% named Russian (a 3.2% decrease). It should be noted, though, that for many Ukrainians (of various ethnic descent), the term native language may not necessarily associate with the language they use more frequently. The overwhelming majority of ethnic Ukrainians consider the Ukrainian language native, including those who often speak Russian. According to the official 2001 census data approximately 75% of Kievs population responded "Ukrainian" to the native language (ridna mova) census question, and roughly 25% responded "Russian". On the other hand, when the question "What language do you use in everyday life?" was asked in the sociological survey, the Kievans answers were distributed as follows: "mostly Russian": 52%, "both Russian and Ukrainian in equal measure": 32%, "mostly Ukrainian": 14%, "exclusively Ukrainian": 4.3%. Ethnic minorities, such as Romanians, Tatars and Jews usually use Russian as their lingua franca. But there are tendencies within these minority groups to use Ukrainian. The Jewish writer Olexander Beyderman from the mainly Russian speaking city of Odessa is now writing most of his dramas in Ukrainian. The emotional relationship regarding Ukrainian is changing in southern and eastern areas.
Opposition to expansion of Ukrainian-language teaching is a matter of contention in eastern regions closer to Russia – in May 2008, the Donetsk city council prohibited the creation of any new Ukrainian schools in the city in which 80% of them are Russian-language schools.
Literature and the Ukrainian literary language
Further information: Ukrainian literature
Ukrainian writers and poets
The literary Ukrainian language, which was preceded by Old East Slavic literature, may be subdivided into three stages: old Ukrainian (12th to 14th centuries), middle Ukrainian (14th to 18th centuries), and modern Ukrainian (end of the 18th century to the present). Much literature was written in the periods of the old and middle Ukrainian language, including legal acts, polemical articles, science treatises and fiction of all sorts.
Influential literary figures in the development of modern Ukrainian literature include the philosopher Hryhorii Skovoroda, Ivan Kotlyarevsky, Mykola Kostomarov, Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky, Taras Shevchenko, Ivan Franko, and Lesia Ukrainka. The earliest literary work in the modern Ukrainian language was recorded in 1798 when Ivan Kotlyarevsky, a playwright from Poltava in southeastern Ukraine, published his epic poem, Eneyida, a burlesque in Ukrainian, based on Virgils Aeneid. His book was published in vernacular Ukrainian in a satirical way to avoid being censored, and is the earliest known Ukrainian published book to survive through Imperial and, later, Soviet policies on the Ukrainian language.
Kotlyarevskys work and that of another early writer using the Ukrainian vernacular language, Petro Artemovsky, used the southeastern dialect spoken in the Poltava, Kharkiv and southern Kieven regions of the Russian Empire. This dialect would serve as the basis of the Ukrainian literary language when it was developed by Taras Shevchenko and Panteleimon Kulish in the mid 19th century. In order to raise its status from that of a dialect to that of a language, various elements from folklore and traditional styles were added to it.
The Ukrainian literary language developed further when the Russian state banned the use of the Ukrainian language, prompting many of its writers to move to the western Ukrainian region of Galicia which was under more liberal Austrian rule; after the 1860s the majority of Ukrainian literary works were published in Austrian Galicia. During this period Galician influences were adopted in the Ukrainian literary language, particularly with respect to vocabulary involving law, government, technology, science, and administration.
Current usage
The use of the Ukrainian language is increasing after a long period of decline. Although there are almost fifty million ethnic Ukrainians worldwide, including 37.5 million in Ukraine (77.8% of the total population), the Ukrainian language is prevalent only in western and central Ukraine. In Kiev, both Ukrainian and Russian are spoken, a notable shift from the recent past when the city was primarily Russian speaking. The shift is believed to be caused, largely, by an influx of the rural population and migrants from the western regions of Ukraine but also by some Kievans turning to use the language they speak at home more widely in everyday matters. Public signs and announcements in Kiev are in Ukrainian. In southern and eastern Ukraine, Russian is the prevalent language of the urban population. According to the Ukrainian Census of 2001, 87.8% people living in Ukraine communicate in Ukrainian.
Use of the Ukrainian language in Ukraine can be expected to increase, as the rural population migrates into the cities. In eastern and southern Ukraine, the rural Ukrainophones continue to prefer Russian. Interest in Ukrainian literature is growing rapidly, compensating for the periods when its development was hindered by either policies of direct suppression or lack of the state support.
Dialects
Map of Ukrainian dialects and subdialects (2005).
Northern group
South-eastern group
South-western group
Main article: Ukrainian dialects
Several modern dialects of Ukrainian exist
Northern (Polissian) dialects:
(3) Eastern Polissian is spoken in Chernihiv (excluding the southeastern districts), in the northern part of Sumy, and in the southeastern portion of the Kiev Oblast as well as in the adjacent areas of Russia, which include the southwestern part of the Bryansk Oblast (the area around Starodub), as wel
ukrainian language
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ukrainian language
تشریح نگارش (هوش مصنوعی)
زبان اوکراینی (یا زبان اکراینی) به عنوان نام یک زبان خاص، باید بر اساس قواعد نگارشی و گرامری فارسی صحیح استفاده شود. در اینجا چند نکته برای استفاده صحیح از این ترکیب ارائه می‌شود:
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نحوه نوشتن: درست‌ترین نگارش باید به صورت "زبان اوکراینی" باشد. واژه "اوکراینی" به عنوان صفت، به زبان اشاره دارد و باید به همراه “زبان” استفاده شود.
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حروف بزرگ: در زبان فارسی، در ابتدای جمله یا برای نام‌های خاص، حروف بزرگ استفاده می‌شود. بنابراین اگر "زبان اوکراینی" در ابتدای جمله بیاید، باید "زبان اوکراینی" نوشته شود.
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جمع و مفرد: اگر بخواهید به شکل جمع صحبت کنید، میتوانید از واژه "زبان‌های اوکراینی" استفاده نمایید.
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استفاده از پیشوندها و پسوندها: اگر بخواهید فعل یا صفاتی را به این ترکیب اضافه کنید، باید به نکات دستوری توجه کنید. مثلاً "زبان اوکراینی را یاد بگیرید."
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نکات دقیق‌تر: همیشه توجه داشته باشید که بقیه جملات نیز از نظر دستوری سالم و صحیح باشند.
- نسبت به واژه "اوکراینی": این واژه به ملیت و زبان اوکراین اشاره دارد و در حالت‌های مختلف، باید به تناسب با ساختار جمله قرار گیرد.
به‌طور کلی، قاعده اصلی این است که کلمات را به درستی در کنار هم قرار دهید و از لحاظ نگارشی و دستوری درست استفاده کنید.