گنبد گومبت پهلوی قبه عربی

معنی کلمه گنبد گومبت پهلوی قبه عربی

معنی واژه گنبد گومبت پهلوی قبه عربی

معنیگنبد (به پهلوی: گومبت) سازه‌ی است معمارانه شبیه نیم‌کره ای توخالی . تاریخ ساخت گنبد با مواد گوناگون به پیش از تاریخ می‌رسد. گنبدهای پیش کرده، پیش رونده (به انگلیسی: corbel)‏ در خاور میانه‌ی باستان در ساختمان‌ها و مقبره‌ها یافت می‌شود. ساخت اولین گنبدهای فنی پیشرفته در اروپا در انقلاب معماری رومی آغاز شد، هنگامی‌ که رومی‌ها فضاهای بزرگ داخلی معابد و ساختمان های عمومی، مانند پانتئون را می ساختند.
محتویات
۱ ویژگی‌ها
۲ تاریخچه
۳ انواع گنبد
۴ نگارخانه
۵ جستارهای وابسته
۶ منابع
ویژگی‌ها



مقایسه گنبد واقعی (چپ) با گنبد پیش‌رونده (راست).
گنبد را می‌توان به شکل یک کمان که با چرخش حول محور عمودی مرکزی آن به وجود می‌آید تصور کرد. همچنین گنبدهای قوسی شکل، اگر درست طراحی شوند دارای استحکام زیادی هستند و می‌توانند فضای زیادی را بدون ستون محافظ پوشش دهند. گنبدهای پیش کرده، پیش رونده (به انگلیسی: corbel)‏ با پیش‌روی افقی در هر طبقه از دیوار به وجود می‌آیند به طوری که هر طبقه نسبت به طبقه‌ی پایینی بیشتر به داخل متمایل می‌شود و در پایان کل محوطه در یک نقطه به هم می‌رسد. بعضا به این نوع گنبد، گنبدنما گفته می‌شود. گنبد واقعی، گنبدی است که به طور فزاینده‌ای به سمت داخل زاویه‌دار شده و در نهایت نسبت به پایه گنبد زاویه ۹۰ درجه پیدا می‌کند.
تاریخچه

بشر از پیش از تاریخ تا دوران معاصر سکونت ها و بناهای گنبدی شکل با استفاده از مصالح موجود در محل ساخته‌است. اگر چه معلوم نیست ک اولین گنبد چه زمانی ساخته شد، نمونه‌های پراکنده از سازه‌های گنبدی شکل اولیه کشف شده است. اکتشافات اخیر در محوطه باستانی تپه چغامیش (۶۸۰۰ تا ۳۰۰۰ سال قبل از میلاد)، واقع در دشت دزفول(شهر باستانی)|دزفول ایران، استفاده از گل آجر و سازه‌های خشتی در ساخت گنبد را نشان می‌دهد. معماری پارسی ساسانی به احتمال زیاد معماری گنبد سازی بین النهرین/میانرودان را به ارث برده است. خرابه های کاخ اردشیر بابکان و قلعه دختر (فیروزآباد) در استان فارس، توسط اردشیر اول (۲۲۴--۲۴۰) ساخته شده است، استفاده از گنبد توسط امپراطوری ساسانی را نشان می‌دهد.


کلبه حصیری سرخ‌پوستی، ۱۹۰۳


کاخ اردشیر بابکان


گنبد کروی پروژه عدن در انگلستان
انواع گنبد

در سرزمین‌هایی مثل روم شکل نیمکره را برای گنبد بر می‌گزیدند و چون میانتار رانش بر منحنی آن منطبق نمی‌شد ناچار بودند که کناره‌های آن را هرچه ستبرتر کنند تا در برابر رانش سدی باشد، در صورتی که معماران ایرانی نیم دایره را برای پوشش مناسب نمی‌دانستند و شکل‌هائی نظیر تخم مرغی و هلو چینی و بیضی را انتخاب می‌کردند که خود به خود میانتار رانش بود و این انتخاب باعث می‌شد که بتواند ضخامت گنبد را در خاستگاه و پاکار تنها به اندازه یک شانزدهم دهانه بگیرند (که البته هرچه بالاتر می‌رفت نازک می‌شد تا به کلاله برسد).
گنبد پیازی (به انگلیسی: Onion dome)‏
گنبد مقرنس(به انگلیسی: Corbel dome)‏
گنبد بیضوی (به انگلیسی: Oval dome)‏
گنبد سهمی (به انگلیسی: Parabolic dome)‏
گنبد چندگوش (به انگلیسی: Polygonal dome)‏
گنبد بادبانی (به انگلیسی: Sail dome)‏
گنبد نعلبکی (به انگلیسی: Saucer dome)‏
گنبد چتری (به انگلیسی: Umbrella dome)‏


گنبد پیازی


گنبد مقرنس


گنبد بیضوی


گنبد چندگوش


گنبد بادبانی


گنبد نعلبکی


گنبد چتری
نگارخانه
























جستارهای وابسته

گنبد (معماری)
مقرنس
منابع

↑ دهخدا؛ گنبد
↑ ۲٫۰ ۲٫۱ ۲٫۲ Wikipedia-Dome
↑ گنبد در مساجد ایرانی؛ احمدرضا عاملی؛ روزنامه دنیای اقتصاد۲۴ مهر ۱۳۹۰؛ به نقل از استاد پیرنیا؛ ۱۳۵۱
این یک نوشتار خُرد معماری است. با گسترش آن به ویکی‌پدیا کمک کنید.
رده‌ها: سقف‌هاعناصر معماری گنبدها معماری معماری بیزانتین معماری کلیسامعماری مسجدهنر و معماری باستانی خاورنزدیک طاق و قوس

قس عربی

القبة نوع من الأقبیة التی تستخدم للتسقیف وهی بأبسط أشکالها عبارة عن نصف کرة مجوفة تقف على أعمدة أو جدران ومصنوعة من مواد مختلفة. وتعتبر القبة عنصرا من عناصر العمارة الإسلامیة.

محتویات
1 تاریخ القباب
2 القباب فی العمارة الإسلامیة
3 وصف القباب
4 مواضیع متعلقة
5 المصادر
تاریخ القباب

عرفت القباب بشکلها البدائی قبل الإسلام فکانت إما صغیرة مکونه من قطعة واحدة أو مبنیة بعدة طبقات مرکبة أما بعد الإسلام فبدأ استخدام القبب الحقیقیة ذات الهیکل الداخلی المتصل والموحد. أول القباب فی المنطقة العربیة کانت مبنیة بالطوب فی منطقة الجزیرة الفراتیة فی شرق سوریة وشمال العراق وذلک فی الألفیة الرابعة قبل المیلاد (القرن الأربعین قبل المیلاد)، قبل الحضارة السومریة. کانت تستخدم لتسقیف الأکواخ الطینیة والمخازن والقبور. بعد ذلک تطور استخدام القباب بتطور مواد البناء حین شاع استخدام الطابوق والحجر على أیدی الأمم التی توالت على المنطقة.

وظلت المعرفة بالقبب فی تلک المنطقة حتى انتقلت إلى الإغریق وأول ما استخدمه الإغریق کان فی المقابر على شکل قباب منحدرة مدببة، کونها کانت جدیدة على بیئتهم البنائیة التی استغنت عنها بخامة الحجر، وذلک باستعمال أسلوب الأطر الحجریة (عمود- جسر) الذی برع به الکنعانیون والمصرین. وفیما عدا ذلک لم تحضى القباب بأهمیة کبرى فی العمارة الیونانیة القدیمة، ولم تتطور لدیهم، حتى جاء الرومان.

یقول الباحث السوری عبد المعطی خضر أن الرومان تعلموا استخدام القباب من المعماریون الشامیین الذین اشتهروا بقطع الأحجار ونحتها وبناءها بشکل محکم فاستخدموها وطوروها ثم أضافوا موادا جدیدة للبناء (مادة تشبه الخرسانة). ونجد الیوم أقدم ذکر لتلک الموائمة فی القبة الخشبیة الموجودة فی کنیسة القدیس سمعان التی یعود إنشاؤها إلى عام 500 م, ومن أشهر الطرازات فی استخدام القبب قبل الإسلام استخدام المناذرة لثلاث قبب فی أبنیتهم مثل قصر الخورنق. ولکن عند بناء قبة الصخرة عام 692 م، وهی من أوائل القبب الإسلامیة بنیت بالنظام الإسلامی البحت المتطور. وهکذا فان القبة تحولت من تغطیة للحجرات المدورة فی العراق القدیم بسبب سهولة الانتقال من الدائرة للدائرة، لکنها خلقت إشکالا حینما وظفت فی المسقط المربع للحجرات، واقتضت إیجاد حلول للانتقال من زوایا المربع إلى المثمن والذی شکل رقبة (طنبور) القبة تباعا، فجیء بحلین أحدهما شامی بالمثلثات الکرویة والثانی عراقی بالمقرنصات البدائیة، تبعا لما تسمح به خامة البناء (الحجر أو الطابوق) والتی نسبت کعادتها لتسمیات (بیزنطیة وساسانیة). ومن الجدیر ذکره أن قرى الجزیرة الفراتیة تبنی بیوتها بالقباب.

القباب فی العمارة الإسلامیة

عندما بنى رسول الله صلى الله علیه وسلم مسجده فی المدینة المنورة, کان سقفه من السعف المحمول على جذوع النخیل, وظل الحال على ذلک فیما بنی من مساجد ولم تکن القبة قد دخلت بناء المساجد.

أما أول قبة بنیت فی الإسلام فهی قبة مسجد الصخرة المشرفة فی القدس التی بناها الخلیفة الأموی عبد الملک بن مروان عام 72 هجریة. وتسنى للمسلمون أن ینقلوا أعرافها إلى المغرب العربی والأندلس، ونجد الیوم مثلا جمیلا لمدینة وادی سوف (ولایة الوادی) فی شرق الجزائر التی تشکل القباب العنصر الأساس فی تسقیف حجراتها. وما زال القوم یطلقون فی المشرق وبعض المغرب على الحجرة أو الغرفة اسم قبة.

وصف القباب



من مرکز مدینة وادی سوف ولایة الوادی
القبة یمکن اعتبارها قوس متکرر وملتف حول وسطه، فالقبة لها قدرة کبیرة على تحمل الأحمال الإنشائیة ویمکن مدها على مساحة واسعة. فی حالة کون القاعدة التی ترتکز علیها القبة مدورة تنتقل الأحمال إلى القاعدة مباشرة. إذا کانت القاعدة مربعة، یجب أن تنشر الأحمال باستخدام وسائل إنشائیة مثل المقرنصات وغیرها.

نادرا ما تکون القبة کرویة تماما، فأشکال القباب تختلف حسب مواد البناء المستخدمة، التکنولوجیا المتوفرة، الطرز المعماریة السائدة وغیرها من المؤثرات. فهناک القباب المستدیرة والمضلعة والمؤلفة من دور واحد أو دورین أو أکثر, وهناک القباب ذات الزخارف الدقیقة, والأخرى المغطاة بصفائح الذهب أو الرصاص.

مواضیع متعلقة

قبو
عقد
سقف
عقادة
المصادر

^ أندریه بارو وجان کلود مارغورون، 2005، "مملکة ماری الفراتیة فی سوریا"
↑ أ ب عبد المعطی خضر، "تاریخ العمارة العربیة والأوروبیة"
ع · ن · ت
العمارة العربیة
العناصر
إیوان • بغجة • حجر أبلق • حمام • حوض • دکة • ساباط • سبیل • سرداب • سلسبیل • شرفة • صحن • صفّة • طارمة • عقد • عقادة • فسقیة • فسیفساء • قبة • قبو • قمریة • قوس • کلاوستروم • مئذنة • مجاز • محراب • مجلس • مقرنصات • مشربیة • ملاقف • نافورة • درقاعة •

الأبنیة
استراحة • بیت المال • بیت عربی تقلیدی • بیمارستان • تکیة • کُتّاب • خانقاه • زاویة • مدرسة قرآنیة • حصن • حمام عام • دار الإمارة • دیوان • رباط • سوق • کوت • مسجد • مسجد جامع • مقهى • وکالة
التقنیات
سکک البرید • القناطر • مقیاس النیل • النواعیر • طاحونة هوائیة • قنوات المیاه • مطارات الحمام
الطرازات
الطراز الأموی • الطراز العباسی • الطراز الفاطمی • الطراز الأندلسی • الطراز المملوکی • الطراز العثمانی
قوائم
مساجد • قصور • مدارس • أسواق • أخرى
تصنیفات: عمارة عربیة عمارة المسجداختراعات یونانیة

قس ترکی آذری

Günbəz - dairəvi, çoxbucaqlı və ellipsvarı bina və qurğuların üstünü örtmək için istifadə edilən yarım kürə şəklindəki memarlıq və mühəndislik elementi.Günbəz vasitəsilə əlavə dayaqlar qoymadan çəx böyük sahənin üstünü örtmək mümkündür. Vertikal düşən yükdən günbəz konstruksiyalarda sıxılma gərginliyi yaranır və ağırlıq kənar dayaqlara düşür.
Günbəzlərin qurulması ta qədim zamanlardan məlum idi. Ancaq böyük və mürəkkəb günbəzlər Qədim Roma dövründə məbədlərin və böyük içtimai binaların tikintisi zamanı geniş tətbiq edilidi.
Həmçinin bax

İslam
Məscid
Mühəndislik
Memar
Kateqoriya: Memarlıq

قس ترکی استانبولی

Günbəz - dairəvi, çoxbucaqlı və ellipsvarı bina və qurğuların üstünü örtmək için istifadə edilən yarım kürə şəklindəki memarlıq və mühəndislik elementi.Günbəz vasitəsilə əlavə dayaqlar qoymadan çəx böyük sahənin üstünü örtmək mümkündür. Vertikal düşən yükdən günbəz konstruksiyalarda sıxılma gərginliyi yaranır və ağırlıq kənar dayaqlara düşür.
Günbəzlərin qurulması ta qədim zamanlardan məlum idi. Ancaq böyük və mürəkkəb günbəzlər Qədim Roma dövründə məbədlərin və böyük içtimai binaların tikintisi zamanı geniş tətbiq edilidi.
Həmçinin bax

İslam
Məscid
Mühəndislik
Memar
Kateqoriya: Memarlıq

قس ترکی استانبولی

Kubbe, (İspanyolca: cúpula, Almanca: kuppel, Boşnakça: kupola) binaların üstünü örtmek için kullanılan yarım küre şeklindeki mimari unsur.
Kubbe kelimesi batı dillerine, Müslümanların Endülüsteki hakimiyetleri sırasında İspanyolca aracılığı ile girdi.
Kubbe, mimari alanda eski dönemlerden beri uygulanan bir unsurdur. Tarihi gelişim süreci içinde boyutları büyüyen kubbe asıl önemli gelişimini Türk ve İslam mimarisinde kaydetti. Kubbe zamanla cami mimarisinin vazgeçilmez bir unsuru haline geldi. Başlangıçta küçük boyutlu kubbeler inşa eden Türk mimarlar, özellikle İstanbulun fethinden sonra büyük kubbeli eserler yapmaya başladılar. Mimar Sinanın Edirnede Padişah II. Selim adına inşa ettiği Selimiye Camiinin kubbe çapı 31,25 metredir.
Günümüzde Türkiyede inşa edilen camilerin kubbe tarzı büyük ölçüde Osmanlı tarzının devamı niteliğindedir.
Dış bağlantılar

Mimar Sinanın Eserleri
Mimarlık ile ilgili bu madde bir taslaktır. Madde içeriğini genişleterek Vikipediye katkıda bulunabilirsiniz.
Kategoriler: Mimarlık taslaklarıKubbeler

قس اسپانیائی

Kubbe, (İspanyolca: cúpula, Almanca: kuppel, Boşnakça: kupola) binaların üstünü örtmek için kullanılan yarım küre şeklindeki mimari unsur.
Kubbe kelimesi batı dillerine, Müslümanların Endülüsteki hakimiyetleri sırasında İspanyolca aracılığı ile girdi.
Kubbe, mimari alanda eski dönemlerden beri uygulanan bir unsurdur. Tarihi gelişim süreci içinde boyutları büyüyen kubbe asıl önemli gelişimini Türk ve İslam mimarisinde kaydetti. Kubbe zamanla cami mimarisinin vazgeçilmez bir unsuru haline geldi. Başlangıçta küçük boyutlu kubbeler inşa eden Türk mimarlar, özellikle İstanbulun fethinden sonra büyük kubbeli eserler yapmaya başladılar. Mimar Sinanın Edirnede Padişah II. Selim adına inşa ettiği Selimiye Camiinin kubbe çapı 31,25 metredir.
Günümüzde Türkiyede inşa edilen camilerin kubbe tarzı büyük ölçüde Osmanlı tarzının devamı niteliğindedir.
Dış bağlantılar

Mimar Sinanın Eserleri
Mimarlık ile ilgili bu madde bir taslaktır. Madde içeriğini genişleterek Vikipediye katkıda bulunabilirsiniz.
Kategoriler: Mimarlık taslaklarıKubbeler

قس انگلیسی

A dome is an element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. Dome structures made of various materials have a long architectural lineage extending into prehistory.
Corbel domes and true domes have been found in the ancient Middle East in modest buildings and tombs. The construction of the first technically advanced true domes began in the Roman Architectural Revolution, when they were frequently used by the Romans to shape large interior spaces of temples and public buildings, such as the Pantheon. This tradition continued unabated after the adoption of Christianity in the Byzantine (East Roman) religious and secular architecture, culminating in the revolutionary pendentive dome of the 6th century church Hagia Sophia. Squinches, the technique of making a transition from a square shaped room to a circular dome, was most likely invented by the ancient Persians. The Sassanid Empire initiated the construction of the first large-scale domes in Persia, with such royal buildings as the Palace of Ardashir, Sarvestan and Ghaleh Dokhtar. With the Muslim conquest of Greek-Roman Syria, the Byzantine architectural style became a major influence on Muslim societies. Indeed the use of domes as a feature of Islamic architecture has gotten its roots from Roman Greater-Syria (see Dome of the Rock).
An original tradition of using multiple domes was developed in the church architecture in Russia, which had adopted Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium. Russian domes are often gilded or brightly painted, and typically have a carcass and an outer shell made of wood or metal. The onion dome became another distinctive feature in the Russian architecture, often in combination with the tented roof.
Domes in Western Europe became popular again during the Renaissance period, reaching a zenith in popularity during the early 18th century Baroque period. Reminiscent of the Roman senate, during the 19th century they became a feature of grand civic architecture. As a domestic feature the dome is less common, tending only to be a feature of the grandest houses and palaces during the Baroque period.
Construction of domes in the Muslim world reached its peak during the 16th – 18th centuries, when the Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal Empires, ruling an area of the World compromising North Africa, the Middle East and South- and Central Asia, applied lofty domes to their religious buildings to create a sense of heavenly transcendence. The Sultan Ahmed Mosque, the Shah Mosque and the Badshahi Mosque are primary examples of this style of architecture.
Many domes, particularly those from the Renaissance and Baroque periods of architecture, are crowned by a lantern or cupola, a Medieval innovation which not only serves to admit light and vent air, but gives an extra dimension to the decorated interior of the dome.
Contents
1 Characteristics
2 History
2.1 Early history and primitive domes
2.2 Roman and Byzantine domes
2.3 Chinese domes
2.4 Arabic and Western-European domes
2.5 Persian domes
2.6 Russian domes
2.7 Italian Renaissance and Ottoman domes
2.8 South-Asian and Mughal domes
2.9 Early modern period domes
2.10 Modern period domes
3 Symbolism
4 Influential domes
5 General types
5.1 Onion dome
5.2 Corbel dome
5.3 Geodesic dome
5.4 Oval dome
5.5 Parabolic dome
5.6 Polygonal dome
5.7 Sail dome
5.8 Saucer dome
5.9 Umbrella dome
6 See also
7 References
8 Gallery
Characteristics



Comparison of a generic "true" arch (left) and a corbel arch (right).
A dome can be thought of as an arch which has been rotated around its central vertical axis. Thus domes, like arches, have a great deal of structural strength when properly built and can span large open spaces without interior supports. Corbel domes achieve their shape by extending each horizontal layer of stones inward slightly farther than the previous, lower, one until they meet at the top. These are sometimes called false domes. True, or real, domes are formed with increasingly inward-angled layers of voussoirs which have ultimately turned 90 degrees from the base of the dome to the top.


A compound dome (red) with pendentives (yellow) from a sphere of greater radius than the dome.
When the base of the dome does not match the plan of the supporting walls beneath it (for example, a circular dome on a square bay), techniques are employed to transition between the two. The simplest technique is to use diagonal lintels across the corners of the walls to create an octagonal base. Another is to use arches called squinchs to span the corners, which can support more weight. The invention of pendentives superseded the squinch technique. Pendentives are triangular sections of a sphere used to transition from the flat surfaces of supporting walls to the round base of a dome.
Domes can be divided into two kinds: simple and compound, depending on the use of pendentives. In the case of the simple dome, the pendentives are part of the same sphere as the dome itself; however, such domes are rare. In the case of the more common compound dome, the pendentives are part of the surface of a larger sphere below that of the dome itself and form a circular base for either the dome or a drum section.
Drums, also called tholobates or tambours, are cylindrical or polygonal walls supporting a dome which may contain windows.
Domes have been constructed from a wide variety of building materials over the centuries: from mud to stone, wood, brick, concrete, metal, glass and plastic.
History

Early history and primitive domes


Apache wigwam, by Edward S. Curtis, 1903
Cultures from pre-history to modern times constructed domed dwellings using local materials. Although it is not known when the first dome was created, sporadic examples of early domed structures have been discovered.
The earliest discovered may be four small dwellings made of Mammoth tusks and bones. The first was found by a farmer in Mezhirich, Ukraine, in 1965 while he was digging in his cellar and archaeologists unearthed three more. They date from 19,280 - 11,700 BC.
In modern times, the creation of relatively simple dome-like structures has been documented among various indigenous peoples around the world. The Wigwam was made by Native Americans using arched branches or poles covered with grass or hides. The Efé people of central Africa construct similar structures, using leaves as shingles. Another example is the Igloo, a shelter built from blocks of compact snow and used by the Inuit people, among others. The Himba people of Namibia construct "desert igloos" of wattle and daub for use as temporary shelters at seasonal cattle camps, and as permanent homes by the poor.


Drawing of an Assyrian bas-relief from Nimrud showing domed structures
The historical development from structures like these to more sophisticated domes is not well documented. That the dome was known to early Mesopotamia may explain the existence of domes in both China and the West in the first millennium BC. Another explanation, however, is that the use of the dome shape in construction did not have a single point of origin and was common in virtually all cultures long before domes were constructed with enduring materials.
The recent discoveries of seal impressions in the ancient site of Chogha Mish (c. 6800 to 3000 BC), located in the Susiana plains of Iran, show the extensive use of dome structures in mud-brick and adobe buildings. Other examples of mud-brick buildings, which also seemed to employ the "true" dome technique have been excavated at Tell Arpachiyah, a Mesopotamian site of the Halaf (c. 6100 to 5400 BC) and Ubaid (ca. 5300 to 4000 BC) cultures. Excavations at Tell al-Rimah have revealed brick domical vaults from about 2000 BC. At the Sumerian Royal Cemetery of Ur, a "complete rubble dome built over a timber centring" was found among the chambers of the tombs for Meskalamdug and Puabi, dating to around 2500 BC. Set in mud mortar, it was a "true dome with pendentives rounding off the angles of the square chamber." Other small domes can be inferred from the remaining ground plans, such as one in the courtyard of Ur-Nammus ziggurat, and in later shrines and temples of the 14th century BC.
Corbelled beehive domes were used as granaries in Ancient Egypt from the first dynasty, in mastabas of the Old Kingdom, as pressure-relieving devices in private brick pyramids of the New Kingdom, and as kilns and cellars. Examples have been found in brick and in stone.
Ancient tombs have been found from Oman to Portugal with stone corbel domes. The "Hafeet graves", also called "Mezyat graves", were structures built above ground, dating to the Bronze Age period between 3200 and 2700 BC in an area straddling the borders between Oman, UAE, and Bahrain. Similar above-ground tombs made of corbelled stone domes have been found in the fourth cataract region of Nubia with dates beginning in the second millennium BC. Examples on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia have been dated to 2500 BC. The so-called Treasury of Atreus, a large Mycenaean tomb covered with a mound of earth, dates to around 1330 BC. However, small corbel domes functioning as dwellings for poorer people appear to have remained the norm throughout the ancient Near East until the introduction of the monumental dome in the Roman period.
A Neo-Assyrian bas-relief from Kuyunjik depicts domed buildings, although remains of such a structure in that ancient city have yet to be identified, perhaps due to the impermanent nature of sun-dried mudbrick construction. However, because the relief depicts the Assyrian overland transport of a carved stone statue, the background buildings most likely refer to a foreign village, such as those at the foothills of the Lebanese mountains. The relief dates to the 8th century BC, while the use of domical structures in the Syrian region may go back as far as the fourth millennium BC.
Wooden domes were evidently used in Etruria on the Italian peninsula from archaic times. Reproductions were preserved as rock-cut Etruscan tombs produced until the Roman Imperial period, and paintings at Pompeii show examples of them in the third style and later. Wooden domes may also have been used in ancient Greece, over buildings such as the Tholos of Epidaurus, which is typically depicted with a conical roof. Evidence for such wooden domes over round buildings in Ancient Greece, if they existed, has not survived and the issue is much debated.
Rock-cut tombs in Alexandria suggest the possible use of domed ceilings in the architecture of Ptolemaic Egypt. The earliest evidence of a Hellenistic dome is at the North Baths of Morgantina in Sicily, dated to the mid third century BC. The dome measured 5.75 metres in diameter over the circular hot room of the baths. It was made of terracotta tubes partially inserted into each other and arranged in parallel arches, which were then completely covered with mortar. It is also the earliest known example of this technique of tubular vault construction. A Hellenistic bathing complex in nearby Syracuse may also have used domes like these to cover its circular rooms. Another dome with the same parallel arch construction but more refined technique has been identified in the tepidarium at a Roman era bathing complex in Cabrera del Mar, Spain, and dated to the middle of the second century BC.
Roman and Byzantine domes
See also: List of Roman domes


Painting by Giovanni Paolo Pannini of the Pantheon in Rome, Italy, after its conversion to a church.
Roman domes of the pagan period are essentially found in three environments: baths, villas and palaces, and tombs. Oculi are common features. The Romans also used semi-domes, half a dome "cut" vertically, in niches and the exedras of basilicas.
The octagonal Tower of the Winds in Athens, built by Antigonus of Cyrrhestus, has a flat, monolithic, stone dome. Varros book on agriculture, written about the same time, describes an aviary with a wooden dome decorated with the eight winds which is compared by analogy to the eight winds depicted on the Tower of the Winds. This aviary with its wooden dome may represent a fully developed type. Wooden domes in general would have allowed for very wide spans. Their earlier use may have inspired the development and introduction of large stone domes of previously unprecedented size. Complex wooden forms were also necessary for centering and support, the construction of which seems to have eventually become more efficient and standardized.
Roman baths played a leading role in the development of domed construction in general, and monumental domes in particular. Modest domes in baths dating from the 2nd and 1st centuries BC are seen in Pompeii, in the frigidaria of the Terme Stabiane and the Terme del Foro. According to Vitruvius, the temperature and humidity of domed tepidaria could be regulated by raising or lowering bronze discs located under the oculus. Domes were particularly well suited to the hot rooms of baths circular in plan to facilitate even heating from the walls. However, the extensive use of domes did not occur before the 1st century AD.
The first known large Roman dome is the so-called "Temple of Mercury" in Baiae, a concrete bath hall dating from the age of Augustus (27 BC - AD 14). There are five openings in the dome: a circular oculus and four square skylights. The dome has a span of 21.5 meters and is the largest known dome to have been built before that of the Pantheon. It is also the earliest preserved concrete dome.
The mortar and aggregate of Roman concrete was built up in horizontal layers laid by hand against wooden form-work with the thickness of the layers determined by the length of the workday, rather than being poured into a mold as concrete is today. Roman concrete domes were thus built similarly to the earlier corbel domes of the Mediterranean region, although they have different structural characteristics. The dry concrete mixtures used by the Romans were compacted with rams to eliminate voids, and added animal blood acted as a water reducer.
While there are earlier examples in the Republican period and early Imperial period, the growth of domed construction increases under Emperor Nero and the Flavians in the 1st century, and during the 2nd century AD. The opulent palace architecture of the Emperor Nero (54-68 AD) marks an important development. There is evidence of a dome in his Domus Transitoria at the intersection of two corridors, resting on four large piers, which may have had an oculus at the center. In Neros Domus Aurea, or "Golden House", the walls of a large octagonal room transition to an octagonal domical vault, which then transitions to a dome with an oculus. This octagonal and semicircular dome is made of concrete and the oculus is made of brick. The radial walls of the surrounding rooms buttress the dome, allowing the octagonal walls directly beneath it to contain large openings under flat arches and for the room itself to be unusually well-lit. Another dome, made of wood, is reported in contemporary sources to have covered a dining hall in the palace, and may have been fitted such that perfume might spray from the ceiling. The dome perpetually rotated on its base in imitation of the sky. The expensive and lavish decoration of the palace caused such scandal that it was demolished soon after Neros death and public buildings such as the Baths of Titus and the Colosseum were built in its place.
The most famous and best preserved Roman dome - and the largest - is that of the Pantheon, a temple in Rome built by Emperor Hadrian as part of the Baths of Agrippa. Dating from the 2nd century, it is an unreinforced concrete dome 43.4 meters wide resting on a circular wall, or rotunda, 6 meters thick. This rotunda, made of brick-faced concrete, contains a large number of relieving arches and is not solid. Seven interior niches and the entrance way divide the wall structurally into eight virtually independent piers. These openings and additional voids account for a quarter of the rotunda walls volume. The only opening in the dome is the brick-lined oculus at the top, nine meters in diameter, which provides light and ventilation for the interior. The shallow coffering in the dome accounts for a less than five percent reduction in the domes mass, and is mostly decorative. The aggregate material hand-placed in the concrete is heaviest at the base of the dome and changes to lighter materials as the height increases, dramatically reducing the stresses in the finished structure. In fact, many commentators cite the Pantheon as an example of the revolutionary possibilities for monolithic architecture provided by the use of Roman pozzolana concrete. However, vertical cracks seem to have developed very early, such that in practice the dome acts as an array of arches with a common keystone, rather than as a single unit. The exterior step-rings used to compress the "haunches" of the dome, which would not be necessary if the dome acted as a monolithic structure, may be an acknowledgement of this by the builders themselves. Such buttressing was common in Roman arch construction. It remained the largest dome in the world for more than a millennium and is still the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome.
Segmental domes, made of radially concave wedges or of alternating concave and flat wedges, also appear under Hadrian in the 2nd century and most preserved examples of this style date from this period. Hadrians Villa has examples at the Piazza DOro and in the semidome of the Serapeum. Recorded details of the decoration of the segmental dome at the Piazza DOro suggests it was made to evoke a billowing tent, perhaps in imitation of the canopies used by Hellenistic kings. Other examples exist at the Hadrianic baths of Otricoli and the so-called "Temple of Venus" at Baiae. This style of dome required complex centering and radially-oriented formwork to create its tight curves.
In the 3rd century, Imperial mausolea began to be built as domed rotundas rather than tumulus structures or other types, following similar monuments by private citizens. Pagan and Christian domed mausolea from this time can be differentiated in that the structures of the buildings also reflect their religious functions. The pagan buildings are typically two story, dimly lit, free-standing structures with a lower crypt area for the remains and an upper area for devotional sacrifice. Christian domed mausolea contain a single well-lit space and are usually attached to a church. Examples from the 3rd century are the brick domes of the Mausoleum of Galerius, the Mausoleum of Diocletian, and the mausoleum at Tor de Schiavi.
In the 4th century, Roman domes proliferated due to changes in the way domes were constructed, including advances in centering techniques and the use of brick ribbing. The so-called "Temple of Minerva Medica", for example, used brick ribs along with step-rings and lightweight pumice aggregate concrete to form a decagonal dome. The material of choice in construction gradually transitioned during the 4th and 5th centuries from stone or concrete to lighter brick in thin shells. The use of ribs stiffened the structure, allowing domes to be thinner with less massive supporting walls. Windows were often used in these walls and replaced the oculus as a source of light, although buttressing was sometimes necessary to compensate for large openings. The Mausoleum of Santa Costanza has windows beneath the dome and nothing but paired columns beneath that, using a surrounding barrel vault to buttress the structure.
Christian mausolea and shrines developed into the "centralized church" type, often with a dome over a raised central space. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, for example, was likely built with a wooden dome over the shrine by the end of the 4th century. The octagonal "Domus Aurea", or "Golden Octagon", built in 327 at the imperial palace of Antioch likewise had a domical roof, presumably of wood and covered with gilded lead.
Centralized buildings of circular or octagonal plan also became used for baptistries and reliquaries due to the suitability of those shapes for assembly around a single object. Baptisteries began to be built in the manner of domed mausolea during the 4th century in Italy. The octagonal Lateran baptistery or the baptistery of the Holy Sepulchre may have been the first, and the style spread during the 5th century.
The Church of the Holy Apostles, or Apostoleion, begun by Constantine in the new capital city of Constantinople, combined the congregational basilica with the centralized shrine. With a similar plan to that of the Church of Saint Simeon Stylites, four naves projected from a central rotunda containing Constantines tomb and spaces for the tombs of the twelve Apostles. Above the center may have been a clerestory with a wooden dome roofed with bronze sheeting and gold accents.
With the end of the Western Roman Empire, domes became a signature feature of the church architecture of the surviving Eastern Roman - or "Byzantine" - Empire. The square bay with an overhead sail vault or dome on pendentives became the basic unit of architecture in the early Byzantine centuries, found in a variety of combinations. By the 5th century, structures with small-scale domed cross plans existed across the Christian world. Examples include the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, the martyrium attached to the Basilica of San Simpliciano, and churches in Macedonia and on the coast of Asia Minor.
The first known domed basilica may have been a church at Meriamlik in southern Turkey, dated from 471-494, although the ruins do not provide a definitive answer. It is possible earlier examples existed in Constantinople, where it has been suggested that the plan for the Meriamlik church itself was designed, but no domed basilica has been found there before the 6th century. The Church of St. Polyeuctus in Constantinople (524-527) was apparently built as a large and lavish domed basilica similar to the Meriamlik church of fifty years before and to the later Hagia Irene of Emperor Justinian, by Anicia Juliana, the last descendent of the former Imperial House.


The dome of Hagia Sophia, or Church of the Holy Wisdom, in Istanbul, Turkey
6th century church building by the Emperor Justinian used the domed cross unit on a monumental scale, in keeping with Justinians emphasis on bold architectural innovation. His church architecture emphasized the central dome. Centrally planned domed churches had been built since the 4th century for very particular functions, such as palace churches or martyria, with a slight widening of use around 500 AD, but Justinians architects make the domed brick-vaulted central plan standard throughout the Roman east. This divergence with the Roman west from the second third of the 6th century may be considered the beginning of "Byzantine" architecture.
The earliest existing of Justinians domed buildings is the central plan Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople, completed by 536. The dome rests on an octagonal base created by eight arches on piers and is divided into sixteen sections. Those sections above the flat sides of the octagon are flat and contain a window at their base, alternating with sections from the corners of the octagon which are scalloped, creating an unusual kind of pumpkin dome.
After the Nika Revolt destroyed much of the city of Constantinople in 532, Justinian had the opportunity to rebuild. Both the churches of Hagia Irene ("Holy Peace") and Hagia Sophia ("Holy Wisdom") were burnt down. Both had been basilica plan churches and both were rebuilt as domed basilicas, although the Hagia Sophia was on a much grander scale.
Built by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus in Constantinople between 532 and 537, the Hagia Sophia has been called the greatest building in the world. It is an original and innovative design with no known precedents in the way it covers a basilica plan with dome and semi-domes. Periodic earthquakes in the region have caused three partial collapses of the dome and necessitated repairs. The precise shape of the original central dome completed in 537 was significantly different than the current one and, according to contemporary accounts, much bolder. Byzantine chronicler John Malalas reports that the original dome was 20 byzantine feet lower than its replacement. One theory is that the original dome continued the curve of the pendentives, creating a massive sail vault pierced with a ring of windows. A more recent theory raises the shallow cap of this dome (the portion above what are today the pendentives) on a relatively short recessed drum containing the windows, which is mentioned in an account by Procopius. This first dome partially collapsed in 558 and the design was then revised to the present profile. The current central dome is about 32 meters wide. It contains 40 ribs which radiate from the center of the dome and 40 windows at the base of the dome between the ribs. The dome and pendentives are supported by four large arches springing from four piers. Additionally, two huge semi-domes of similar proportion are placed on opposite sides of the central dome, which themselves contain smaller semi-domes between an additional four piers. The brick dome also incorporated a wooden tension ring at its base to resist outward thrust and interrupt cracking, and iron cramps between the marble blocks of its cornice.
The octagonal Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy, was completed in 547 and contains a terracotta dome. Hollow amphorae were fitted inside one another to provide a lightweight structure and avoid additional buttressing. The amphorae were arranged in a continuous spiral, which required minimal centering and formwork, but was not strong enough for large spans. The dome was covered with a timber roof, which would be the favored practice for later medieval architects in Italy although it was unusual at the time.
Justinian also tore down the aging Church of the Holy Apostles and rebuilt it on a grander scale between 536 and 550. The original building was a cruciform basilica with a central domed mausoleum. Justinians replacement was likewise cruciform but with a central dome and four flanking domes. The central dome over the crossing had pendentives and windows in its base, while the four domes over the arms of the cross had pendentives but no windows. Justinians Basilica of St. John at Ephesus and Venices St Marks Basilica are derivative of this design. More loosely, the Cathedral of St. Front and the Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua are also derived from this church.
With the decline in the empires resources following losses in population and territory, domes in Byzantine architecture were used as part of more modest new buildings. The large-scale churches of Byzantium were, however, kept in good repair. The upper portion of the Church of Hagia Irene was thoroughly rebuilt after an earthquake in 740. The nave was re-covered with an elliptical domical vault hidden externally by a low cylinder on the roof, in place of the earlier barrel vaulted ceiling, and the original central dome from the Justinian era was replaced with one raised upon a high windowed drum. The barrel vaults supporting these two new domes were also extended out over the side aisles, creating cross-domed units. These units became a standard element on a smaller scale in later Byzantine church architecture.
The Nea Ekklesia of Emperor Basil I was built in Constantinople around 880 as part of a substantial building renovation and construction program during his reign. It had five domes, which are known from literary sources, but different arrangements for them have been proposed under at least four different plans. One has the domes arranged in a cruciform pattern like those of the contemporaneous Church of St. Andrew at Peristerai or the much older Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. Others arrange them in a quincunx pattern, with four minor domes in the corners of a square and a larger fifth in the center, as part of a cross-domed or cross-in-square plan.
The Cross-in-square plan, with a single dome at the crossing or five domes in a quincunx pattern, became widely popular in the Middle Byzantine period. This type of plan, with four columns supporting the dome at the crossing, was best suited for domes less than 7 meters wide and, from the tenth to the 14th centuries, a typical Byzantine dome measured less than 6 meters in diameter. For domes beyond that width, however, variations in the plan were required such as using piers in place of the columns and incorporating further buttressing around the core of the building.


The Church of St. Panteleimon, Nerezi, Macedonia has five domes in a quincunx pattern.
In this period, domes were normally built to emphasize separate functional spaces, rather than as the modular ceiling units they had been earlier. Resting domes on circular or polygonal drums pierced with windows eventually became the standard style, with regional characteristics. The domes of the Church of the Holy Apostles appear to have been radically altered between 944 and 985 by the addition of windowed drums beneath all five domes and by raising the central dome higher than the others. The distinctive rippling eaves design for the roofs of domes begins in the 10th century. In mainland Greece, circular or octagonal drums became the most common while, in Constantinople, drums with twelve or fourteen sides were popular beginning in the 11th century.
The domed-octagon plan is a variant of the cross-in-square plan. The earliest extant example is the katholikon at the monastery of Hosios Loukas, built in the first half of the 11th century. Its square crossing bay is defined by four L-shaped piers which transition by conical squinches to an octagonal drum for the 9 meter wide dome. The smaller monastic church at Daphni, c. 1080, uses a simpler version of this plan.
Another variant of the cross-in-square, the "so-called atrophied Greek cross plan", also provides greater support than the typical cross-in-square by using piers set securely into the corners of the square naos. This design was used in the Chora Church of Constantinople in the 12th century after the previous cross-in-square structure was destroyed by an earthquake.
Byzantine domed buildings typically incorporated wooden tension rings at several levels within the structures, a technique frequently attributed as the later invention of Filippo Brunelleschi. Metal clamps between stone cornice blocks, metal tie rods, and metal chains were also used to stabilize domed construction. Timber belts at the bases of domes help to stabilize the walls below them during earthquakes, but the domes themselves remain vulnerable to collapse. The technique of using double shells for domes, although revived in the Renaissance, originated in Byzantine practice.
Byzantine domes and techniques of religious architecture spread to the surrounding Christian nations, such as Georgia and Armenia. Armenian church domes were initially wooden structures. Etchmiadzin Cathedral (c. 483) originally had a wooden dome covered by a wooden pyramidal roof before this was replaced with stone construction in 618. Churches with stone domes became the standard type after the 7th century, perhaps benefiting from a possible exodus of stonecutters from Syria, but the long traditions of wooden construction carried over stylistically. Some examples in stone as late as the 12th century are detailed imitations of clearly wooden prototypes.
Chinese domes


Model of the Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb (25 AD - 220 AD).
Very little has survived of ancient Chinese architecture, due to the extensive use of timber as a building material. Brick and stone vaults used in tomb construction have survived, and the corbeled dome was used, rarely, in tombs and temples. The earliest true domes found in Chinese tombs were shallow cloister vaults, called simian jieding, derived from the Han use of barrel vaulting. Unlike the cloister vaults of western Europe, the corners are rounded off as they rise.
A model of a tomb found with a shallow true dome from the late Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) can be seen at the Guangzhou Museum (Canton). Another, the Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb, found in Hong Kong in 1955, has a design common among Eastern Han Dynasty (25 AD - 220 AD) tombs in South China: a barrel vaulted entrance leading to a domed front hall with barrel vaulted chambers branching from it in a cross shape. It is the only such tomb that has been found in Hong Kong and is exhibited as part of the Hong Kong Museum of History.
During the Three Kingdoms period (220 – 280), the "cross-joint dome" (siyuxuanjinshi) was developed under the Wu and Western Jin dynasties, with arcs building out from the corners of a square room until they met and joined at the center. These domes were stronger, had a steeped angle, and could cover larger areas than the shallow cloister vaults. There are also corbel vaults used, called diese, although these are the weakest type. Some tombs of the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279) have beehive domes.
Arabic and Western-European domes


The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem


Dome of Al Othman Mosque in Hawalli, Kuwait
Seventeen years after the last Western Roman Emperor was deposed, Theodoric the Great was the Ostrogothic king of Italy. His building projects largely continued existing architectural conventions. His Arian Baptistry in Ravenna (c. 500), for example, closely echoes the Baptistry of Neon built before it. Both baptistries are octagonal buildings with pyramidal roofs concealing interior domes.
The Mausoleum of Theodoric, however, was understood by contemporaries to be remarkable. Begun in 520, the 36-foot-wide (11 m) dome over the mausoleum was carved out of a single 440 ton slab of limestone and positioned some time between 522 and 526. The twelve brackets carved as part of the domes exterior are thought to have been used to maneuver the piece into place. The choice of large limestone blocks for the structure is significant as the most common construction material in the West at that time was brick. It is likely that foreign artisans were brought to Ravenna to build the structure; possibly from Syria, where such stonework was used in contemporary buildings.
The Syria and Palestine area has a long tradition of domical architecture, including wooden domes in shapes described as "conoid", or similar to pine cones. When the Arab Muslim forces conquered the region, they employed local craftsmen for their buildings and, by the end of the 7th century, the dome had begun to become an architectural symbol of Islam. The rapidity of this adoption was likely aided by the Arab religious traditions, which predate Islam, of both domed structures to cover the burial places of ancestors and the use of a round tabernacle tent with a dome-like top made of red leather for housing idols.
The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, the earliest surviving Islamic building, was completed in 691 by Umayyad caliph Abd Al-Malik. Its design was that of a ciborium, or reliquary, such as those common to Byzantine martyria and the major Christian churches of the city. The dome, a double shell design made of wood, is 20.44 meters in diameter and 30 meters high. It is currently covered in gilded aluminum. Several restorations since 1958 to address structural damage have resulted in the extensive replacement of tiles, mosaics, ceilings, and walls such that "nearly everything that one sees in this marvelous building was put there in the second half of the twentieth century", but without significant change to its original form and structure.
Byzantine workmen built the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus and its hemispherical dome for Sherif al Walid in 705. The dome rests upon an octagonal base formed by squinches.
Italian church architecture from the late sixth century to the end of the eighth century is influenced less by the trends of Constantinople than by a variety of Eastern provincial plans. With the crowning of Charlemagne as a new Roman Emperor, these influences were largely replaced in a revival of earlier Western building traditions. Occasional exceptions include examples of early quincunx churches at Milan and near Cassino.
Charlemagne built the Palatine Chapel at his palace at Aachen between 789 and its consecration in 805. The architect is thought to be Odo of Metz, although the quality of the ashlar construction has led to speculation about the work of outside masons. The chapels domed octagon design was influenced by Byzantine models such as the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, the Church of Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople, and perhaps the Chrysotriklinos, or "golden reception hall", of the Great Palace of Constantinople. The octagonal domical vault measures 16.5 meters wide and 38 meters high. It was the largest dome north of the Alps at that time.
The dome of the Great Mosque of Kairouan (also called the Mosque of Uqba) built in the first half of the 9th century, has a ribbed hemispherical dome which rests on an octogonal drum with slightly concave sides.
The Great Mosque of Córdoba, begun in 785 under the last of the Umayyad caliphs, was enlarged by Al-Hakam II between 961 and 976 to include four domes and a remodeled mihrab. The central dome, in front of the mihrab area, transitions from a square bay with decorative squinches to eight overlapping and intersecting arches which surround and support a scalloped dome.
Southern Italy, Sicily, and Venice served as outposts of Middle Byzantine architectural influence in Italy. That southern Italy was reconquered and ruled by a Byzantine governor from about 970 to 1071 explains the relatively large number of small and rustic Middle Byzantine-style churches found there, including the Cattolica in Stilo and S. Marco in Rossano. Both are cross-in-square churches with five small domes on drums in a quincunx pattern and date either to the period of Byzantine rule or after.
The church architecture of Sicily has fewer examples, having been conquered by Muslims in 827, but quincunx churches exist with single domes on tall central drums and either Byzantine pendentives or Islamic squinches. Very little architecture from the Islamic period survives on the island. The domed basilicas built in Sicily after the Norman Conquest of 1091, however, incorporate distinctly Islamic architectural elements. They include hemispherical domes positioned directly in front of apses, similar to the common positioning in mosques of domes directly in front of mihrabs, and the domes use squinches supported on four points, as do the domes of Islamic North Africa and Egypt. In other cases, domes with tall drums, engaged columns, and blind arcades exhibit Byzantine influences.


Interior of St. Marks Basilica in Venice, Italy
Venices close mercantile links to the Byzantine empire resulted in the architecture of that city and its vicinity being a blend of Byzantine and northern Italian influences, although nothing from the ninth and tenth centuries has survived except for the foundations of the first St. Marks Basilica. The current St Marks Basilica was built between 1063 and 1072, replacing an earlier church while replicating its Greek cross plan. Five domes vault the interior (one each over the four arms of the cross and one in the center). These domes were built in the Byzantine style, in imitation of the now lost Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. Mounted over pendentives, each dome has a ring of windows at its base. Much higher wooden outer domes with lead roofing and cupolas were added between 1210 and 1270, allowing the church to be seen from a great distance. In addition to allowing for a more imposing exterior, building two distinct shells in a dome improved weather protection. However, it was a rare practice before the 11th century.
Domes in Romanesque architecture are generally found within crossing towers at the intersection of a churchs nave and transept, which conceal the domes externally. The precise form of these differ from region to region. Romanesque domes are typically octagonal in plan, possibly due to their use of corner squinches to translate a square bay into a suitable octagonal base. They appear "in connection with basilicas almost throughout Europe" between 1050 and 1100.
Being a part of the Holy Roman Empire, the architecture of northern Italy developed differently than the rest of the Italian peninsula, especially after 1100. Churches were designed with vaulting from the outset, rather than as colonnaded basilicas with timber roofs, and many have octagonal domes with squinches over their crossings or choirs.
The earliest use of the octagonal cloister vault within an external housing at the crossing of a cruciform church may be at Acqui Cathedral in Acqui Terme, Italy, which was completed in 1067. This becomes increasingly popular as a Romanesque feature over the course of the next fifty years. The first Lombard church to have a lantern tower, concealing an octagonal cloister vault, was San Nazaro in Milan, just after 1075. Many other churches followed suit in the next few decades, such as the Basilica of San Michele Maggiore in Pavia and the Basilica of SantAmbrogio in Milan.
The renovation of Speyer Cathedral, the largest
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