نوشتن کتابت عربی یازی ترکی تحریر اردو

معنی کلمه نوشتن کتابت عربی یازی ترکی تحریر اردو

معنی واژه نوشتن کتابت عربی یازی ترکی تحریر اردو

معنینوشتن یا نگارش عملی است که بشر بوسیله آن اندیشه‌هایش را مصور می‌کند با اختراع نوشتن گام بزرگی در تمدن برداشته شد. نوشتن دو کارکرد اصلی دارد: ۱- ثبت اطلاعات ۲- نشر اطلاعات کارکرد عمده سخن گفتن نشر اطلاعات و برقراری ارتباط با دیگران است اما دلیل ابتدایی نوشتن، ترس انسان از فراموشی و نیاز به ثبت وقایع و دانسته‌ها بوده‌است
حدوداً شش هزار سال پیش دهقانان مصری که موظف بودند مقداری از محصولات کشاورزی خود را به عنوان مالیات به فرعون بدهند تصویر سبد را به تعدادی که پرداخت کرده بودند بر دیوارهای خانه خود حک می‌کردند.
به بیانی دیگر نوشتن یا نگارش نوعی رسانهٔ مجازی برای انتقال اطلاعات است که با آن می‌توان مفاهیم و اندیشه‌ها را بیان و صورت‌بندی کرد، و یا آنها را پرورش و اشاعه داد.
نوشتن همچنین عملی است که به کمک آن می‌توان اطلاعات و اندیشه‌ها را تحلیل، بررسی و بازبینی کرد. نگارش، می‌تواند به عنوان ابزاری برای استدلال و استنتاج و ابهام‌زدایی بکار رود.
منابع

در ویکی‌انبار پرونده‌هایی دربارهٔ نوشتن موجود است.
محمدی‌فر، محمدرضا، شیوه‌نامهٔ ویرایش؛ نگارش، سازمان چاپ و انتشارات وزارت فرهنگ و ارشاد اسلامی، ۱۳۸۱.
این یک نوشتار خُرد است. با گسترش آن به ویکی‌پدیا کمک کنید.
رده‌ها: نوشتن ادبیات ارتباطات غیرزبانی رسانه


قس عربی

إن الکتابة طریقة یمکن بها توثیق النطق ونقل الفکَر والأحداث إلى رموز یمکن قراءتها حسب نموذج مخصص لکل لغة. بدأ الإنسان الکتابة عن طریق الرسم ثم تطورت هذه الرموز إلى أحرف لکی تختصر وقت الکتابة.
لقد بدأ الإنسان الکتابة مستخدما الوسائل المتاحة لدیه حیث بدأ باستخدام النقش على الحجر لتدوین ما یریده ثم انتقل إلى الکتابة على أوعیة أخرى کالرق والبردی والورق الذی اخترع فی بدایة القرن الثانی م. ثم ما لبث الإنسان الأکثر تقدما أن اخترع الآلات التی تساعده على الکتابة مثل الآلات الکاتبة والمطابع وأخیرا أصبح الإنسان یسخدم الکتابة من خلال أجهزة متقدمة جدا مثل الحواسیب وأصبح یتعامل الیوم بما یسمى الکتب الإلکترونیة.
تاریخ

شعر الإنسان منذ القدیم بالحاجة إلى تسجیل ما لدیه من معلومات على وسیط خارجی قابل للتداول بین الناس، فکان ظهور الکتابة أو الرموز. وبفضل الکتابة وقع تحدید حقوق الأفراد والمجموعات کما ثبتت الشرائع والدیانات.
لقد مرت الکتابة بمراحل رئیسیة، لیست متعاقبة بالضرورة وإنما هی متداخلة فی الزمان والمکان، وقد سمیت الکتابات الأولى بالتصویریة ومن بینها الکتابة المسماریة التی کان یستعملها البابلیون والآشوریون، والهیروغلیفیة کالمصریة والصینیة.
لکن وقع التفریق فیما بعد بین الکتابة التصویریة بمعناها الضیق (بیکتوغرافیا) وهی الأقدم عهدا وکتابة الأفکار (إیدیوغرافیا) کمرحلة أعلى من مراحل الکتابة التصویریة، فإذا رسمت دائرة تنبثق منها أشعة فإن الصورة فی هذه الحالة تعنی "شمس" وتؤخذ على أنها تصویرة، أما إذا کان ذلک الرمز الصورة یعنی فکرة منبثقة منه مثل القیظ أو حار أو ساخن أو دافئ فإنها تؤخذ على أنها (idéogramme)، أی صور لکلمات، حیث أن الواحد من تلک الرموز هو فی الغالب عبارة عن کلمة کاملة أو فکرة بأسرها.
ثم استحالت تلک الرموز من التعبیر عن أفکار إلى مقاطع (syllabes) أی مجموعة من الرموز یدل کل منها على مقطع؛
ثم استخدمت العلامات آخر الأمر لا لتدل على المقطع کله بل على أول ما فیه من أصوات وبهذا أصبحت حروفا.
ومن أهم المناطق التی تطورت فیها الکتابة بلاد الرافدین (العراق الحالی) ومصر بالإضافة إلى سوریا وإیران:
1- فی الجزء الجنوبی من بلاد الرافدین دجلة والفرات، بدأت الکتابة مع السومریین وقد استمر وجود السومریین وبالتالی حضارتهم عدة قرون بدءا من الألف الرابع ق م حتى اختفوا من التاریخ فی نهایة الألفیة الثالثة قبل المیلاد وقد احتلت مکانهم ببلاد الرافدین شعوب أخرى (الأکادیون، البابلیون، الآشوریون). وقد ورثت هذه الشعوب وطورت ما توصل إلیه السومریون من تنظیمات سیاسیة وإداریة وقوانین وخاصة منها الکتابة المسماریة نسبة إلى المسامیر التی کانت تکتب بها على الطین والتی کانت تتخذ من خشب صلب أو عظام أو معدن. وهذه الکتابة تظهر فی شکل خطوط شبیهة بالمسامیر. وقد بدأت فی الألف 4 ق م أی حوالی سنة 3600 ق م، وکان اختراعها فی البدایة لدوافع عملیة (التجارة والإدارة وشؤون الدولة) وبقیت کذلک لعدة عهود قبل أن یقع استعمالها فی الفنون والأدب والعلوم والمیثولوجیا وغیرها. وتطورت من کتابة تصویریة إلى نظام کتابی تطغى علیه السمات الصوتیة. وکانت هذه الکتابة تکتب من الیمین إلى الیسار.
2- مصر : کانت الهیروغلیفیة أول الکتابات التی أبتکرها المصریون القدماء والتی کانت عبارة عن کتابة تصویریة تستخدم فیها صور البشر والطیور والثدییات والنباتات والأدوات المختلفة بالإضافة إلى وجود علامات. وکان عدد الرموز الهیروغلیفیة حوالی 700 وکانت لها وظیفتان تصویریة وصوتیة معا, ومن ثم تطورت إلى الهیراطیقیة (خط رجال الدین) التی ظهرت فی عصر الدولة الوسطى الفرعونیة والتی کانت تستخدم فی المعابد والجنازات ،وفى العصر الفرعونى المتأخر تطورت الکتابة إلى الکتابة الدیموطیقیة (الکتابة الشعبیة) واستخدمت فی جمیع نواحى الحیاة ،وقد حظیت الکتابة فی مصر القدیمة بموقع متمیز إذ کانت وسیلة للرقی الاجتماعی حیث کانت تفتح أمام صاحبها باب التوظیف فی الدولة.
3- الساحل الفینیقی : عرف الفینیقیون بکونهم أبدعوا منذ نهایة الألفیة الثانیة ق م الأبجدیة التی تترکب من 22 حرفا صوتیا. وتجدر الإشارة هنا إلى أن هذه الحروف ظهرت غیر بعید عنهم فی أوغاریت (رأس شمرا)وسیناء، غیر أن الفینیقیین هم الذین اشتهروا بها إذ قاموا بنشرها على السواحل المتوسطیة بدءا من الیونان فی القرن 10 ق م.
«إن الفینیقیین هم الذین أطلعوا الإغریق على الکثیر من العلوم ومن بینها علم الحروف. ویبدو أن الشعوب الإغریقیة کانت قبل ذلک تجهل تماما استعمال الحروف... فقد أخذتها عن الفینیقیین واستعملتها بشیء من التحریف وأطلقت علیها اسم الفینیقیة الأحرف الفینیقیة» – هیرودوت
لقد أخذ الیونانیون من الفینیقیین لیس فقط حروف الأبجدیة، وإنما أیضا ترتیبها ونطقها مع بعض التحویر حیث أضافوا إلیها المصوتال واختلفوا فی اتجاه کتابتها فکتبوها من الیسار إلى الیمین. وانتشرت الأبجدیة من الیونانیین إلى لغات أخرى کالروسیة والقبطیة والإتروسکیة واللاتینیة.
طالع أیضاً

الکاتب جون بتلر ییتس
مراجع

ع • ن • ت
الکتابة
أصول
حرف • خط • رسم صوتی • رسم فکری • رسم معنوی • شکلة • نسخ
ضروب
أبجدیة • ألفبائیة • مقطعیة • مسماریة • بریلیة • رسم صوری • رسم لفظی
علوم
علم الخط • قواعد الخط • قواعد الکتابة • کتابة القرآن
بوابة:کتابة
تصنیف: کتابة

قس سریانی
ܟܬܒܬܐ ܗܝ ܨܝܪܐ ܐܘ ܪܫܡܐ ܕܐܬܘܬܐ ܥܠ ܛܪܦܐ܀
ܪܬܡܐ

ܡܕܢܚܝܐ: ܟܬ݂ܵܒ݂ܬܵܐ (ܟܢܘܫܝܐ: )
ܡܥܪܒܝܐ: ܟܬ̥ܳܒ̥ܬܳܐ (ܟܢܘܫܝܐ: )

قس ترکی آذری

Yazı - Nitqi müəyyən dövrdə təsbit edən və onu xətti (qrafik) ünsürlərin köməyi ilə müxtəlif məsafələrə çatdırmağa imkan verən işarə sistemi.
Yazı üçün istifadə edilən materiallar
Belə bir hipoteza var ki, inklərin istifadə etdiyi ip düyünləri, kipu, əslində yazı nümunələridir.
Mənbə

Robinson, Andrew The Origins of Writing // David Crowley and Paul Heyer (eds) Communication in History: Technology, Culture, Society (Allyn and Bacon, 2003).
İstinadlar

↑ The Khipu Database Project (ing.)
Dil ilə əlaqədar bu məqalə qaralama halındadır. Məqaləni redaktə edərək Vikipediyanı zənginləşdirin.
Kateqoriya: Dil qaralamaları

قس عبری

כתיבה היא הפעולה של רישום סימני גראפיים בעלי משמעות כגון אותיות, מספרים, מילים ומשפטים על מצע כלשהו: דף נייר, לוח חרס, בד וכדומה. הכתיבה נעשית על ידי שימוש בכלי כתיבה ובעידן הטכנולוגי היא יכולה להיעשות גם באמצעות מחשב או מכונת כתיבה, על ידי הקלדה על גבי מקלדת ומוקרנת על גבי מסך.
מטרת הכתיבה היא להעביר מידע בשפה כלשהי, כאשר לכל שפה יש מערכת כתב משל עצמה. בהתאם לכך המונח "כתיבה" מתייחס לא רק לפעולה הפיזית של חקיקת האותיות על המצע, אלא גם לחיבור האותיות לכדי מילים ומשפטים עד ליצירת קטע טקסט בשפה כלשהי.
תוכן עניינים
ההיסטוריה של הכתיבה



תחריט של נזיר כותב, המאה ה-15


תלמידים כותבים על גבי לוח.
הכתיבה הופיעה לראשונה באלף הרביעי לפני הספירה, בתחילת עידן הברונזה בסוף התקופה הנאוליתית והתפתחה ממערכת סמלים וציורים שנועדה להעביר מידע ולסייע בהנהלת חשבונות (ספירת יבול, ספירת פרים, מעקב אחרי עונות השנה וכדומה). התפתחות מערכת הכתיבה האמיתית הראשונה מיוחסת לשומר העתיקה והיא כתב היתדות. אחריה התפתחו שיטת ההירוגליפים של מצרים העתיקה וכן כתב בתת-היבשת ההודית. האלפבית הראשון התפתח במצרים העתיקה בסביבות 2000 לפני הספירה. הכתב הסיני התפתח בסביבות 1600 לפני הספירה והכתב העברי בסביבות אמצע האלף השני לפני הספירה.
כיום, כתיבה מקצועית היא גם מקצוע המתייחס לעבודתו של עיתונאי (כתיבת כתבות) ולעבודתו של אמן (כתיבה יוצרת של שירים או סיפורים).
התהליך הקוגניטיבי הכרוך בכתיבה


ערך מורחב – כתיבה (תהליך קוגניטיבי)
התהליך הקוגניטיבי האחראי לכתיבה הוא תהליך רב-שלבי המאפשר לכתוב מילים מוכרות וחדשות, לאיית מילים בעל-פה או להקלידן. הנוירופסיכולוגיה הקוגניטיבית משתמשת במודל כתיבת המילה כדי לתאר תהליך זה באמצעות מערכת רכיבים קוגניטיביים כגון המערכת הסמנטית, הלקסיקון הפונולוגי, לקסיקון הפלט האורתוגרפי, או הבאפר הפונולוגי והגרפמי. מודל זה מסייע גם להבנת הסיבות להפרעות כתיבה שונות, אבחונן והטיפול בהן (ראו: דיסגרפיה).
ראו גם

קליגרפיה
דיסגרפיה - לקות כתיבה
הבעה בכתב
קישורים חיצוניים

מיזמי קרן ויקימדיה
ציטוטים בוויקיציטוט: כתיבה
תמונות ומדיה בוויקישיתוף: כתיבה

ערך זה הוא קצרמר בנושא היסטוריה. אתם מוזמנים לתרום לוויקיפדיה ולהרחיב אותו.
קטגוריות: קצרמר היסטוריהכתבבלשנותכתיבה
משובים קודמים

قس پنجابی

لکھائی کسے بولی نوں اکھریاں دی مورت ج لکھ کے دسن دا ناں اے۔
گٹھ: انجان

قس اردو

زبان کو مختلف علامتوں اور رموز ( جسے تحریری نظام کہتے ہیں ) کے ذریعے لکھنے کو تحریر کہتے ہیں ۔ تصاویرِ غار اور پینٹنگ اس سے مختلف ہے ۔
زمرہ: تحریر

قس ترکی استانبولی
Yazı, belirli bir yapısal düzeyde, dile dair görsel işaretlerin kullanıldığı bir tür iletişim aracı. Bu tanım prensipte yazının düşüncelerin değil, "dilin" bir temsili olduğu olgusuna dikkat çeker. Zira konuşma dili çeşitli yapısal seviyelerden (cümle, kelime, hece ve fonem birimi) meydana gelir ve herhangi bir yazı sistemi bu seviyelerden genellikle "sadece birini" temsil eder. Gerçekten de yazının tarihine bakıldığında insanların bu farklı yapısal düzeyleri deneyerek; çok farklı sosyal fonksiyonları karşılayabilecek, pratik, genelgeçer ve ekonomik bir yazma sistemi geliştirmeye çalıştıkları görülür.
Yazı, sıklıkla, bir dildeki sözleri temsil eden semboller sistemi olarak tarif edilir. Sözler kalıcı değilken yazı somut bir varlıktır ve sonsuza kadar muhafaza edilebilir. Hem konuşma hem de yazma bir dilin yapısal özelliklerine bağımlıdır. Bunun bir sonucu olarak belirli bir dildeki yazı, o dilin oral (konuşulan) formunun yapısal özelliklerine aşina olmayan bir kimse tarafından okunamaz. Bununla birlikte yazı sadece sözlerin kağıda dökülmesi değildir; bazen dilin edebî veya bilimsel kullanımlarından doğan çeşitli özel formlarının da sembole dönüştürülmesidir ki bunlar her zaman sözlü olarak ifade edilemeyebilirler.
Aynı dili konuşan bir toplumda, yazılı dil aynı zamanda özel bir diyalekttir ve genellikle birden fazla sayıda yazılı diyalekt vardır. Akademisyenler bunu yazının konuşmadan ziyade dil ile ilişkili olmasına bağlarlar. Bunun bir sonucu olarak sözlü ve yazılı dil birbirlerinden farklı biçim ve fonsiyonlara sahip olacak şekilde evrimleşebilir. Bu alternatif ilişki genellikle aşağıdaki tabloda görüldüğü şekilde ifade edilir:
yazma
^
konuşma
^
yazma
-
dil
-
konuşma
Tarihçe



MÖ 26. yüzyıla ait bir Sümer tableti. Tablette bir başrahibeye göreve seçildiği gün verilen hediyelerin bir listesi görülmektedir.
Arkeolojik bulgular ışığında Sümer yazı sistemi "bilinen" en eski yazı sistemidir.
Sümer rahipleri yazıyı, tapınak ve depolarda bulunan malları kaydetmek amacı ile kullanmışlardı. Bu kayıtları tutarken bu işlemleri gerçekleştirenlerin isimlerini belirtme sorunu doğmuştu. Bunun üzerine kişi isimlerinin heceleri nesne adlarına benzetilerek ilgili nesnenin resimleri çizildi. Kısa zamanda o nesnelerin işaretleri nesneyi değil, o nesnenin adındaki sesleri belirtmeye başladı. Bu şekilde, hecelerin seslerini simgeleyen işaretler kullanılarak kayıtlar tutuldu. Böylece zamanla günlük konuşmaların seslerini belirten işaretler ortaya çıkmış oldu.
Ancak insanlar yazıyı birdenbire öğrenmediler. Önce mağara duvarlarına, kaya ve taşlara yaşadıkları olayları anlatan resimler yaptılar. Bu resimlere çok eski çağlardan kalma mağaralarda bugün bile rastlanmaktadır. Ancak bu resimler tam anlamıyla birer yazı niteliği taşımamaktaydı. Zamanla bu resimlerin gelişmesiyle ideografik yazı şekli ortaya çıktı. Olaylar yine resimlerle belirtiliyor ancak resimler, kendisini değil de anlamını tanımlıyordu. Örneğin bir kuş resmi "uçmak" eylemini anlatmak için yapılmıştı. Kuşu anlatmak için değil. Mısırlılar, bu resimlerle yazının her iki şeklini de genişletip basitleştirdiler. Böylece resimle yazı, binlerce yıl içinde değişe değişe yazıya döndü. Buna hiyeroglif yazısı denmektedir. Mısır hiyeroglifinde üç binden fazla işaret olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Bu yazı resimlerden kurtulamadığı için alfabeye geçememiştir.
Hititler ve Persler, yazılarını kilden tuğlalar üzerine ucu sivri bir çubukla yazarlardı. Onun için yazıları çok ince, çivi biçiminde çizgilere benzerdi. Bu nedenle kullandıkları yazıya "çivi yazısı" adı verilmiştir.
Çinliler hiyeroglifleri bütün uluslardan önce kullanmışlardı. En eski Çin yazıları M.Ö. 1766da görülmektedir. M.S. 200de ise son şeklini bulmuştur. Bundan sonra bazı mahallî değişikliklere uğramıştır. Ancak, büyük bir değişiklik göstermemiştir. Çinliler bugün de hiyeroglif yazıyı kullanmaktadırlar.
Fenikeliler, Suriyenin sahillerine yerleşmişlerdi. Ülkeleri tarım bakımından yetersiz olduğundan denizcilik ve ticaretle uğraşmışlardı. Bu nedenle ticaret yaptıkları ülkelerin uygarlıklarını incelemişler ve yaymışlardı. Bunun sonucunda 26 harften meydana gelen bir alfabe doğdu. Bu alfabe, Yunanistandan İtalyaya geçti. Oradan da bütün Avrupaya yayıldı.
Çoğu tarihçiye göre tarih çağları, yazının bulunması ile başlar.belirtilmeli Çünkü insanların yaşadıkları olaylar yazının bulunması ile kayda alınmış ve bununla birlikte günümüze kadar korunmuştur.
Kaynakça

^ a b c d e f "writing." Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011.
Kategori: Yazı

قس انگلیسی

Writing is the representation of language in a textual medium through the use of a set of signs or symbols (known as a writing system). It is distinguished from illustration, such as cave drawing and painting, and non-symbolic preservation of language via non-textual media, such as magnetic tape audio.
Writing most likely began as a consequence of political expansion in ancient cultures, which needed reliable means for transmitting information, maintaining financial accounts, keeping historical records, and similar activities. Around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration in Mesopotamia outgrew human memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form. In both Ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica writing may have evolved through calendrics and a political necessity for recording historical and environmental events. The oldest known use of writing in China was in divination in the royal court.
Contents
Writing as a category

This section does not cite any references or sources. (February 2010)

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (February 2010)
Writing, more particularly, refers to two things: writing as an object, the thing that is written; and writing as a gerund, which designates the activity of writing. It refers to the inscription of characters on a medium, thereby forming words, and larger units of language, known as texts. It also refers to the creation of meaning and the information thereby generated. In that regard, linguistics (and related sciences) distinguishes between the written language and the spoken language. The significance of the medium by which meaning and information is conveyed is indicated by the distinction made in the arts and sciences. For example, while public speaking and poetry reading are both types of speech, the former is governed by the rules of rhetoric and the latter by poetics.
A person who composes a message or story in the form of text is generally known as a writer or an author. However, more specific designations exist which are dictated by the particular nature of the text such as that of poet, essayist, novelist, playwright, journalist, and more. A translator is a specialized multilingual writer who must fully understand a message written by somebody else in one language; the translators job is to produce a document of faithfully equivalent message in a completely different language. A person who transcribes or produces text to deliver a message authored by another person is known as a scribe, typist or typesetter. A person who produces text with emphasis on the aesthetics of glyphs is known as a calligrapher or graphic designer.
Writing is also a distinctly human activity. Such writing has been speculatively designated as coincidental. At this point in time, the only confirmed writing in existence is of human origin.
Means for recording information

H.G. Wells argued that writing has the ability to "put agreements, laws, commandments on record. It made the growth of states larger than the old city states possible. It made a continuous historical consciousness possible. The command of the priest or king and his seal could go far beyond his sight and voice and could survive his death".
Writing systems
Main article: Writing system
The major writing systems – methods of inscription – broadly fall into four categories: logographic, syllabic, alphabetic, and featural. Another category, ideographic (symbols for ideas), has never been developed sufficiently to represent language. A sixth category, pictographic, is insufficient to represent language on its own, but often forms the core of logographies.
Logographies
A logogram is a written character which represents a word or morpheme. The vast number of logograms needed to write a language, and the many years required to learn them, are the major disadvantage of the logographic systems over alphabetic systems. However, the efficiency of reading logographic writing once it is learned is a major advantage. No writing system is wholly logographic: all have phonetic components as well as logograms ("logosyllabic" components in the case of Chinese characters, cuneiform, and Mayan, where a glyph may stand for a morpheme, a syllable, or both; "logoconsonantal" in the case of hieroglyphs), and many have an ideographic component (Chinese "radicals", hieroglyphic "determiners"). For example, in Mayan, the glyph for "fin", pronounced "ka", was also used to represent the syllable "ka" whenever the pronunciation of a logogram needed to be indicated, or when there was no logogram. In Chinese, about 90% of characters are compounds of a semantic (meaning) element called a radical with an existing character to indicate the pronunciation, called a phonetic. However, such phonetic elements complement the logographic elements, rather than vice versa.
The main logographic system in use today is Chinese characters, used with some modification for various languages of China, Japanese, and, to a lesser extent, Korean in South Korea. Another is the classical Yi script.
Syllabaries
A syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables. A glyph in a syllabary typically represents a consonant followed by a vowel, or just a vowel alone, though in some scripts more complex syllables (such as consonant-vowel-consonant, or consonant-consonant-vowel) may have dedicated glyphs. Phonetically related syllables are not so indicated in the script. For instance, the syllable "ka" may look nothing like the syllable "ki", nor will syllables with the same vowels be similar.
Syllabaries are best suited to languages with relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. Other languages that use syllabic writing include the Linear B script for Mycenaean Greek; Cherokee; Ndjuka, an English-based creole language of Surinam; and the Vai script of Liberia. Most logographic systems have a strong syllabic component. Ethiopic, though technically an alphabet, has fused consonants and vowels together to the point that its learned as if it were a syllabary.
Alphabets
See also: History of the alphabet
An alphabet is a set of symbols, each of which represents or historically represented a phoneme of the language. In a perfectly phonological alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling.
As languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language.
Abjads
In most of the writing systems of the Middle East, it is usually only the consonants of a word that are written, although vowels may be indicated by the addition of various diacritical marks. Writing systems based primarily on marking the consonant phonemes alone date back to the hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt. Such systems are called abjads, derived from the Arabic word for "alphabet".
Abugidas
In most of the alphabets of India and Southeast Asia, vowels are indicated through diacritics or modification of the shape of the consonant. These are called abugidas. Some abugidas, such as Ethiopic and Cree, are learned by children as syllabaries, and so are often called "syllabics". However, unlike true syllabaries, there is not an independent glyph for each syllable.
Sometimes the term "alphabet" is restricted to systems with separate letters for consonants and vowels, such as the Latin alphabet, although abugidas and abjads may also be accepted as alphabets. Because of this use, Greek is often considered to be the first alphabet.
Featural scripts
A featural script notates the building blocks of the phonemes that make up a language. For instance, all sounds pronounced with the lips ("labial" sounds) may have some element in common. In the Latin alphabet, this is accidentally the case with the letters "b" and "p"; however, labial "m" is completely dissimilar, and the similar-looking "q" and "d" are not labial. In Korean hangul, however, all four labial consonants are based on the same basic element. However, in practice, Korean is learned by children as an ordinary alphabet, and the featural elements tend to pass unnoticed.
Another featural script is SignWriting, the most popular writing system for many sign languages, where the shapes and movements of the hands and face are represented iconically. Featural scripts are also common in fictional or invented systems, such as Tolkiens Tengwar.
Historical significance of writing systems


Olin Levi Warner, tympanum representing Writing, above exterior of main entrance doors, Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington DC, 1896.
Historians draw a distinction between prehistory and history, with history defined by the advent of writing. The cave paintings and petroglyphs of prehistoric peoples can be considered precursors of writing, but are not considered writing because they did not represent language directly.
Writing systems develop and change based on the needs of the people who use them. Sometimes the shape, orientation and meaning of individual signs also changes over time. By tracing the development of a script it is possible to learn about the needs of the people who used the script as well as how it changed over time.
Tools and materials
See also: writing implements
The many tools and writing materials used throughout history include stone tablets, clay tablets, wax tablets, vellum, parchment, paper, copperplate, styluses, quills, ink brushes, pencils, pens, and many styles of lithography. It is speculated that the Incas might have employed knotted threads known as quipu (or khipu) as a writing system.
The typewriter and various forms of word processors have subsequently become widespread writing tools, and various studies have compared the ways in which writers have framed the experience of writing with such tools as compared with the pen or pencil.
History of writing

Main article: History of writing
The beginning of writing
By definition, the modern practice of history begins with written records; evidence of human culture without writing is the realm of prehistory.
The writing process first evolved from economic necessity in the ancient near east. Writing most likely began as a consequence of political expansion in ancient cultures, which needed reliable means for transmitting information, maintaining financial accounts, keeping historical records, and similar activities. Around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration outgrew the power of memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form. The Dispilio Tablet, which was carbon dated to the 6th millennium BC, may be evidence that writing was used even earlier than that.


Globular envelope with a cluster of accountancy tokens, Uruk period, from Susa. Louvre Museum
Archaeologist Denise Schmandt-Besserat determined the link between previously uncategorized clay "tokens" and the first known writing, Mesopotamian cuneiform. The clay tokens were used to represent commodities, and perhaps even units of time spent in labour, and their number and type became more complex as civilization advanced. A degree of complexity was reached when over a hundred different kinds of tokens had to be accounted for, and tokens were wrapped and fired in clay, with markings to indicate the kind of tokens inside. These markings soon replaced the tokens themselves, and the clay envelopes were demonstrably the prototype for clay writing tablets. In both Mesoamerica and Ancient Egypt writing may have evolved through calendrics and a political necessity for recording historical and environmental events.
Mesopotamia
In approximately 8000 BC, the Mesopotamians began using clay tokens to count their agricultural and manufactured goods. Later they began placing the tokens in large, hollow, clay containers (bulla) which were sealed; the quantity of tokens in each container came to be expressed by impressing, on the containers surface, one picture for each instance of the token inside. They next dispensed with the tokens, relying solely on symbols for the tokens, drawn on clay surfaces. To avoid making a picture for each instance of the same object (for example: 100 pictures of a hat to represent 100 hats), they counted the objects by using various small marks. In this way the Sumerians added "a system for enumerating objects to their incipient system of symbols". The original Mesopotamian writing system (believed to be the worlds oldest) was derived from this method of keeping accounts circa 3600 BC, and by the end of the 4th millennium BC, this had evolved into using a triangular-shaped stylus pressed into soft clay for recording numbers. This was gradually augmented with using a sharp stylus, indicating what was being counted by means of pictographs. Round-stylus and sharp-stylus writing was gradually replaced by writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the term cuneiform), at first only for logograms, but evolved to include phonetic elements by the 29th century BC. Around the 2700 BC, cuneiform began to represent syllables of spoken Sumerian. Also in that period, cuneiform writing became a general purpose writing system for logograms, syllables, and numbers, and this script was adapted to another Mesopotamian language, the East Semitic Akkadian (Assyrian and Babylonian) in around 2600 BC, and from there to others such as Elamite, Hattian, Hurrian and Hittite. Scripts similar in appearance to this writing system include those for Ugaritic and Old Persian. With the adoption of Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Neo Assyrian Empire, Old Aramaic was also adapted to Mesopotamian Cuneiform. The last Cuneiform scripts in Akkadian discovered thus far date from the 1st Century AD.
Elamite scripts
Over the centuries, three distinct Elamite scripts developed. Proto-Elamite is the oldest known writing system from Iran. It was used during a brief period of time (ca. 3200 – 2900 BC); clay tablets with Proto-Elamite writing have been found at different sites across Iran. The Proto-Elamite script is thought to have developed from early cuneiform (proto-cuneiform). The Proto-Elamite script consists of more than 1,000 signs and is thought to be partly logographic.
Linear Elamite is a writing system from Iran attested in a few monumental inscriptions only. It is often claimed that Linear Elamite is a syllabic writing system derived from Proto-Elamite, although this cannot be proven. Linear-Elamite was used for a very brief period of time during the last quarter of the third millennium BC. Linear-Elamite has not been deciphered. Several scholars have attempted to decipher linear-Elamite, most notably Walther Hinz and Piero Meriggi.
The Elamite Cuneiform script was used from about 2500 to 331 BC, and was adapted from the Akkadian Cuneiform. The Elamite Cuneiform script consisted of about 130 symbols, far fewer than most other cuneiform scripts.
Cretan and Greek scripts
Main articles: Cretan hieroglyphs, Linear A, and Linear B
Cretan hieroglyphs are found on artifacts of Crete (early-to-mid-2nd millennium BC, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). Linear B, the writing system of the Mycenaean Greeks, has been deciphered while Linear A has yet to be deciphered. The sequence and the geographical spread of the three overlapping, but distinct writing systems can be summarized as follows:
Writing system Geographical area Time span1
Cretan Hieroglyphic Crete ca. 1625−1500 BC
Linear A Aegean islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), and Greek mainland (Laconia) ca. 18th century−1450 BC
Linear B Crete (Knossos), and mainland (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns) ca. 1375−1200 BC
China
Further information: Oracle bone script and Bronzeware script
The earlest surviving examples of writing in China are inscriptions on so-called "oracle bones", tortoise plastrons and ox scapulae used for divination, dating from around 1200 BC in the late Shang dynasty. A small number of bronze inscriptions from the same period have also been found. Historians have found that the type of media used had an effect on what the writing was documenting and how it was used.
In 2003, archaeologists reported discoveries of isolated tortoise-shell carvings dating back to the 7th millennium BC, but whether or not these symbols are related to the characters of the later oracle bone script is disputed.
Egypt
The earliest known hieroglyphic inscriptions are the Narmer Palette, dating to c.3200 BC, and several recent discoveries that may be slightly older, though these glyphs were based on a much older artistic rather than written tradition. The hieroglyphic script was logographic with phonetic adjuncts that included an effective alphabet.
Writing was very important in maintaining the Egyptian empire, and literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train to become scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and military authorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but in later centuries was purposely made even more so, as this preserved the scribes status.
The worlds oldest known alphabet appears to have been developed by Canaanite turquoise miners in the Sinai desert around the mid nineteenth century BC. Around 30 crude inscriptions have been found at a mountainous Egyptian mining site known as Serabit el-Khadem. This site was also home to a temple of Hathor, the "Mistress of turquoise". A later, two line inscription has also been found at Wadi el-Hol in Central Egypt. Based on hieroglyphic prototypes, but also including entirely new symbols, each sign apparently stood for a consonant rather than a word: the basis of an alphabetic system. It was not until the twelfth to the ninth centuries, however, that the alphabet took hold and became widely used.
Indus Valley
Main article: Indus script
Indus script refers to short strings of symbols associated with the Indus Valley Civilization (which spanned modern-day Pakistan and North India) used between 2600–1900 BC. In spite of many attempts at decipherments and claims, it is as yet undeciphered. The term Indus script is mainly applied to that used in the mature Harappan phase, which perhaps evolved from a few signs found in early Harappa after 3500 BC, and was followed by the mature Harappan script. The script is written from right to left, and sometimes follows a boustrophedonic style. Since the number of principal signs is about 400-600, midway between typical logographic and syllabic scripts, many scholars accept the script to be logo-syllabic (typically syllabic scripts have about 50-100 signs whereas logographic scripts have a very large number of principal signs). Several scholars maintain that structural analysis indicates an agglutinative language underlies the script.
Turkmenistan
Archaeologists have recently discovered that there was a civilization in Central Asia using writing circa 2000 BC. An excavation near Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, revealed an inscription on a piece of stone that was used as a stamp seal.
Phoenician writing system and descendants
The Proto-Sinaitic script in which Proto-Canaanite is believed to have been first written, is attested as farback as the 19th Century BC. The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Caananite script sometime before the 14th century BC, which in turn borrowed principles of representing phonetic information from Hieratic, Cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphics. This writing system was an odd sort of syllabary in which only consonants are represented. This script was adapted by the Greeks, who adapted certain consonantal signs to represent their vowels. The Cumae alphabet, a variant of the early Greek alphabet, gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet, and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet and Runes. Other descendants from the Greek alphabet include Cyrillic, used to write Bulgarian, Russian, among others. The Phoenician system was also adapted into the Aramaic script, from which the Hebrew script and also that of Arabic are descended.
The Tifinagh script (Berber languages) is descended from the Libyco-Berber script which is assumed to be of Phoenician origin.
Mesoamerica
A stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing was discovered in the Mexican state of Veracruz and is an example of the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere, preceding the oldest Zapotec writing by approximately 500 years. It is thought to be Olmec.
Of several pre-Columbian scripts in Mesoamerica, the one that appears to have been best developed, and the only one to be deciphered, is the Maya script. The earliest inscriptions which are identifiably Maya date to the 3rd century BC. Maya writing used logograms complemented by a set of syllabic glyphs, somewhat similar in function to modern Japanese writing.
Dacia (Romania)
Three stone slabs were found by Romanian archaeologist Nicolae Vlassa, in mid 20th century (1961) in Tărtăria, somewhere in noways Transylvania, Romania, historical land of Dacia, inhabited by Getaes, which were a population who may have been related to the Thracians. One of the slabs contains 4 groups of pictographs divided by lines. Some of the characters are also found ancient Greek, but also in Phoenician, Etruscan, Old Italic and Iberian. The origin and the timing of the writings are widely disputed, because there are no precise evidence in situ, the slabs cannot be carbon dated, because of the bad treatment of the Cluj museum. There are indirect carbon dates found on a skeleton discovered near the slabs, that certifies the 5300-5500 BC period. However, the presence of influences of Greek, Phoenician and Etruscan in the writings, make it unlikely that they date from this period. Other hypothesis are that the slabs are imported from Cyclades islands, because of other artifacts found in the same site.
Creation of textual or written information

Further information: Literature


St. Augustine writing, revising, and re-writing: Sandro Botticellis St. Augustine in His Cell
Composition
Main article: Composition (language)
Creativity
Main articles: Creativity and Creative writing
Author
Main article: Author
Writer
Main article: Writer
Critiques
Main article: Peer critique
See also

Asemic writing
Author
Boustrophedon text
Calligraphy
Collaborative writing
Communication
Composition studies
Copyright Clause
Creative writing
Decipherment
Dyslexia
Essay
Fiction writing
Foreign language writing aid
Grammar
Graphonomics
Interactive fiction
Journalism
Kishotenketsu
Linguistics
List of writers conferences
Literacy
Literary award
Literary criticism
Literary festival
Literature
Manuscript
Mechanical Pencil
Orthography
Pencil
Printing
Publishing
Creation of the Sequoyah syllabary
Scriptorium
Story bible
Speech communication
Teaching Writing in the United States
Typography
White papers
Word processing
Writer
Writers block
Writing bump
Writing circle
Writing in space
Writing slate
Writing style
Writing systems
Writers voice
Notes

^ Beginning date refers to first attestations, the assumed origins of all scripts lie further back in the past.
References

^ Peter T. Daniels, "The Study of Writing Systems", in The Worlds Writing Systems, ed. Bright and Daniels, p. 3
^ a b Robinson, 2003, p. 36
^ Wells, H.G. (1922). A Short History Of The World. p. 41.
^ Smith, Frank. Writing and the writer. Routledge, 1994, pg. 142.
^ The Khipu Database Project,
^ Chandler, Daniel (1990). "Do the write thing?". Electric Word 17: 27–30.
^ Chandler, Daniel (1992). "The phenomenology of writing by hand". Intelligent Tutoring Media 3 (2/3): 65–74. doi:10.1080/14626269209408310.
^ Chandler, Daniel (1993). "Writing strategies and writers tools". English Today: the International Review of the English Language 9 (2): 32–8.
^ Chandler, Daniel (1994). "Who needs suspended inscription?". Computers and Composition 11 (3): 191–201. doi:10.1016/8755-4615(94)90012-4.
^ Chandler, Daniel (1995). The Act of Writing: A Media Theory Approach. Aberystwyth: Prifysgol Cymru.
^ a b Rudgley, Richard (2000). The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 48–57.
^ The Origin and Development of the Cuneiform System of Writing, Samuel Noah Kramer, Thirty Nine Firsts In Recorded History pp 381–383
^ a b Olivier 1986, pp. 377f.
^ Boltz, William (1999). "Language and Writing". In Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L.. The Cambridge History of Ancient China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 74–123. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.
^ "Archaeologists Rewrite History". China Daily. 12 June 2003. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
^ "Earliest writing found in China.". BBC News. 17 April 2003. Retrieved 4 January 2012. "Signs carved into 8,600-year-old tortoise shells found in China may be the earliest written words, say archaeologists."
^ Goldwasser, Orly. "How the Alphabet Was Born from Hieroglyphs", Biblical Archaeology Review, Mar/Apr 2010
^ Whitehouse, David (1999) Earliest writing found BBC
^ (Lal 1966)
^ (Wells 1999)
^ (Bryant 2000)
^ "Ancient writing found in Turkmenistan.". BBC. 2001-05-15. Retrieved 2008-03-30. "A previously unknown civilisation was using writing in Central Asia 4,000 years ago, hundreds of years before Chinese writing developed, archaeologists have discovered. An excavation near Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, revealed an inscription on a piece of stone that seems to have been used as a stamp seal."
^ "Writing May Be Oldest in Western Hemisphere.". New York Times. 2006-09-15. Retrieved 2008-03-30. "A stone slab bearing 3,000-year-old writing previously unknown to scholars has been found in the Mexican state of Veracruz, and archaeologists say it is an example of the oldest script ever discovered in the Western Hemisphere."
^ "Oldest New World writing found". BBC. 2006-09-14. Retrieved 2008-03-30. "Ancient civilisations in Mexico developed a writing system as early as 900 BC, new evidence suggests."
^ "Oldest Writing in the New World". Science. Retrieved 2008-03-30. "A block with a hitherto unknown system of writing has been found in the Olmec heartland of Veracruz, Mexico. Stylistic and other dating of the block places it in the early first millennium before the common era, the oldest writing in the New World, with features that firmly assign this pivotal development to the Olmec civilization of Mesoamerica."
Further reading

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Writing
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: People writing
Wikiversity has learning materials about Collaborative_play_writing
A History of Writing: From Hieroglyph to Multimedia, edited by Anne-Marie Christin, Flammarion (in French, hardcover: 408 pages, 2002, ISBN 2-08-010887-5)
In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language. By Joel M. Hoffman, 2004. Chapter 3 covers the invention of writing and its various stages.
Origins of writing on AncientScripts.com
Museum of Writing: UK Museum of Writing with information on writing history and implements
On ERIC Digests: Writing Instruction: Current Practices in the Classroom; Writing Development; Writing Instruction: Changing Views over the Years
Children of the Code: The Power of Writing – Online Video
Powell, Barry B. 2009. Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization, Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-6256-2
Rogers, Henry. 2005. Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-23463-2 (hardcover); ISBN 0-631-23464-0 (paperback)
Ankerl, Guy (2000) . Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. pp. 59–66, 235s. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
Robinson, Andrew "The Origins of Writing" in David Crowley and Paul Heyer (eds) Communication in History: Technology, Culture, Society (Allyn and Bacon, 2003).
Falkenstein, A. 1965 Zu den Tafeln aus Tartaria. Germania 43, 269-273
Haarmann, H. 1990 Writing from Old Europe. The Journal of Indo-European Studies 17
Lazarovici, Gh., Fl. Drasovean & Z. Maxim 2000 The Eagle - the Bird of death, regeneration resurrection and mesenger of Godds. Archaeological and ethnological problems. Tibiscum, 57-68
Lazarovici, Gh., Fl. Drasovean & Z. Maxim 2000 The eye - symbol, gesture, expression.Tibiscum, 115-128
Makkay, J. 1969 The Late Neolithic Tordos Group of Signs. Alba Regia 10, 9-50
Makkay, J. 1984 Early Stamp Seals in South-East Europe. Budapest
Masson, E. 1984 L écriture dans les civilisations danubiennes néolithiques. Kadmos 23, 2, 89-123. Berlin & New York.
Maxim, Z. 1997 Neo-eneoliticul din Transilvania. Bibliotheca Musei Napocensis 19. Cluj-Napoca
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Categories: WritingNonverbal communication

قس روسی

Письмо́ — это некоторая физическая конструкция, изготовленная тем или иным способом из того или иного материала. В процессе пользования конструкцией (письмом) человек может, если им наработаны соответствующие структуры организма, формировать текст и иллюстрации. Большинство людей-пользователей, в силу их неадекватности, считает, что тексты и иллюстрации есть в самом письме. Изготавливаются конструкции, которые интерпретируются пользователями как надписи. всё то, что приводит к созданию надписи в целом. В Западной культуре под письмом чаще всего понимается только представление языка в текстовом виде с помощью набора знаков или символов (известных как письменность). При письме могут использоваться абстрактные символы, которые отображают фонетические элементы речи, как, например, в индоевропейских языках, либо могут использоваться упрощённые изображения объектов и понятий, как в восточноазиатской и древнеегипетский пиктографических письменных формах. Тем не менее, они отличаются от иллюстраций, таких как наскальные рисунки и живопись, а также от несимвольных способов хранения речи на нетекстовых носителях информации, например, на магнитных аудиокассетах.
Изучением письма как особой знаковой системы занимаются такие дисциплины, как грамматология, эпиграфика и палеография.
Письмо является расширением человеческого языка во времени и пространстве. Чаще всего письмо возникало в результате политической экспансии древних культур, которые нуждались в надёжных средствах передачи информации, поддержании финансовой отчетности, сохранении исторической памяти и аналогичной деятельности. В IV тысячелетии до нашей эры сложность торговых отношений и административного управления переросли возможности человеческой памяти, и письмо стало более надёжным способом учёта и представления взаимодействий на постоянной основе. Как в Месоамерике, так и в Древнем Египте письмо развивалось через календари и политическую необходимость записи общественных и природных событий.
Содержание
Способы записи информации

Уэллс утверждает, что письмо может «зафиксировать соглашения, законы, заповеди в виде документов. Оно обеспечивает рост государства до размеров, превышающих старые города-государства. Слово священника или короля и его гарантии могут выходить далеко за рамки, очерченные его взглядом и голосом, и может воздействовать после его смерти».
Виды письменности
Основные виды письменностей (методы записи речи) по большому счёту делятся на четыре категории: логографические, слоговые, буквенные и характеристические. Есть ещё одна, пятая категория — идеографическое письмо (символы идей), которая никогда не была развита до уровня представления языка. Шестая категория — пиктографическое письмо, сама по себе недостаточна для представления языка, но часто составляет основу логографических систем.
Логограммы
Логограмма представляет собой запись знаков, отображающих отдельные слова или морфемы. Чтобы записать речь, требуется огромное количество логограмм, а чтобы выучить их, нужно многих лет. Это является основным недостатком логографического письма по сравнению с алфавитным. Однако, после того, как такой язык выучен, проявляется его главное преимущество — быстрота чтения. Ни одна система письма не является полностью логографической: все они наряду с логограммами имеют фонетические компоненты («логосиллабические» компоненты в случае китайского письма, клинописи и письма майя, где символ может обозначать морфему, слог или то и другое; «логоконсонантные» компоненты в случае иероглифов). Многие из них включают идеографические компоненты (китайские «радикалы», иероглифические «определители»). Например, в письме майя символ для «плавника» произносится «ка», и он также используется для представления слога «ка», всё равно, необходимо ли указать на произношение логограммы или если логограмма отсутствует. В китайском письме около 90 % символов соединяются семантическим (смысловым) элементом, называемым радикалом, с символом для обозначения произношения, называемого фонетическим. Однако, фонетические элементы дополняют логографические элементы, а не наоборот.
Основной логографической системой, используемой в настоящее время, являются китайские иероглифы, используемые с некоторыми изменениями в различных языках Китая, Японии и, в меньшей степени, в корейском языке Южной Кореи. Другой пример — классическое «письмо и».
Слоговое письмо
Слоговое письмо представляет собой набор письменных знаков, которые представляют (или аппроксимируют) слоги. Знак в слоговом письме обычно отображает сочетание гласный-согласный, или просто один гласный звук. Но в некоторых случаях знаки отображают более сложные слоги (например, согласный-гласный-согласный или согласный-согласный-гласный). Фонетическая связь слогов не находит отражения в алфавите. Например, слог «ка» будет выглядеть совсем непохожим на слог «ки», и в алфавите не будет схожих слогов с такими же гласными.
Слоговое письмо лучше всего подходит для языков с относительно простой структурой слога, таких, как японский. Из других языков, использующих слоговое письмо, можно назвать микенское линейное письмо Б, письмо чероки и ндюка, креольский язык Суринама на основе английского яз
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