گونه های مهاجم یا نا بومی

معنی کلمه گونه های مهاجم یا نا بومی

معنی واژه گونه های مهاجم یا نا بومی

معنیگونه های مهاجم به گونه های طبیعی گفته می شوند که از پیش در یک زادبوم حضور نداشته اند و با معرفی شدن به آن زادبوم باعث بر هم خوردن نظم طبیعی آن می شوند.گونه مهاجم به دلیل آنکه تعلقی به زادبوم معرفی شده به آن ندارد می تواند با سرعت گونه های رقیب را کنار بزند و مانع از رشد و زایش دیگر گونه هایی که به صورت طبیعی در آن منطقه زندگی می کرده اند شود.

یک گونه مهاجم می تواند جانداری بیشتر متکامل مانند یک مهره دار باشد یا یک موجود تک سلولی. برای نمونه موش سیاه که جانوری نابومی در جنگلهای حرا است با خوردن تخم پرندگان بومی و مهاجر خود را به بالای هرم غذایی رسانده و باعث بر هم خوردن نظم طبیعت در این جنگل ها شده است.

عوامل معرفی

عوامل گوناگونی در معرفی گونه های نابومی به عنوان گونه های مهاجم به زادبوم ها وجود دارند از جمله بازرگانی، کشتیرانی، گردشگری و عوامل طبیعی.

منابع

↑ «حرا در هراس از موش سیاه». پایگاه خبری همشهری. بازبینی‌شده در 20 ژانویه ۲۰10.
رده‌های صفحه: کنترل آفت گونه‌های مهاجم اصطلاحات زیست‌محیطی باغبانی زیست‌بوم

قس عربی

النوع المجتاح أو النوع الغازی (بالإنکلیزیة: Invasive species) وهو مصطلح یستخدم فی علم الأحیاء لتصنیف نبات أو حیوان أدخل إلى بیئة معینة وانتشر بشکل مفرط أو غیر مرغوب. فی اللغة العربیة یعنی الاجتیاح الإستئصال أو الأخذ أو التغطیة. یستعمل هذا المصطلح فی حالات جهود استعادة الحیاة البریة فی مکان ما أو الحفاظ على التنوع الحیوی. وهناک أکثر من تعریف للنوع الغاز:
التعریف الأول والأکثر استخداماً، ینطبق على الأنواع غیر الأصلیة ، أو "غیر الواطنة" (بالإنکلیزیة: non-native) من النباتات أو الحیوانات التی تؤثر سلبا على الموائل والمناطق البیئیة التی تغزوها، تأثیراً اقتصادیاً أو بیئیا أو إیکولوجیاً.
تؤثر هذه الأنواع عن طریق الهیمنة على منطقة، أو منطقة بریة، أو موئل معین و/أو مناطق التماس بین المناطق الحضریة والبراری من خلال فقدان الضوابط الطبیعیة (أی الحیوانات المفترسة أو الحیوانات العاشبة). وهذا یشمل الأنواع الغازیة غیر الواطنة الموصوفة بأنها آفات نباتیة غازیة تنمو ضمن نباتات واطنة.
التعریف الثانی یتضمن الأول، ولکن یوسع الحدود لتشمل الأنواع المحلیة أو الواطنة إضافة إلى تلک غیر الأصلیة، والتی تزعج عن طریق استیطان سائد لموئل معین أو منطقة بریة، بسبب فقدان الضوابط الطبیعیة. الأیائل هی أحد الأمثلة على ذلک، حیث تزایدت أعدادها بشدة فی شمال شرق الولایات المتحدة وساحل المحیط الهادئ فی غربها.
الأعشاب المجتاحة

هناک عدد کبیر من الحشائش التی تعد مجتاحة، وبالذات بعد انتشارها خارج موئلها الأصلی. من هذه الحشائش:
طلح
عشب الماء (أو ورد النیل کما یسمى فی بعض الدول العربیة)
السورغم الحلبی
الغاب
القیصوب
خشخاش الأرغمون المکسیکی (Argemone mexicana)
کینا أو (الاوکالیبتوس)
الزنزلخت أو التمر الاخرس
حیوانات مجتاحة

هناک عدد کبیر من الحیوانات والحشرات التی تعد مجتاحة، وبالذات بعد انتشارها خارج موئلها الأصلی. من هذه الحیوانات:
ضفدع القصب
البط البری
طیُورمینة
أیل أسمر أوروبی
ابن عرس
حلزون أبیض الطرف
حلزون الحدائق
مبروکة الزبدیة أو (الشبوط)
هذه بذرة مقالة عن علم الأحیاء تحتاج للنمو والتحسین، فساهم فی إثرائها بالمشارکة فی تحریرها.
هذه بذرة مقالة عن العلوم الزراعیة تحتاج للنمو والتحسین، فساهم فی إثرائها بالمشارکة فی تحریرها.
بوابة علم البیئة
ع · ن · تتلوث

ع · ن · تتهدیدات بیئیة
تصنیفات: مصطلحات بیئیةبستنةعلم البیئةأنواع مجتاحة

قس عبری

מין פולש (באנגלית: invasive species) הוא מין אשר הופץ בעקבות פעילות האדם לאזור שמחוץ לתחום תפוצתו הטבעית, והצליח לייסד במקום זה אוכלוסייה המתרבה ללא התערבות נוספת בידי האדם, ואף מצליחה להתפשט. ההגדרה של מין בתור "פולש" בדרך-כלל מתייחסת לאזור הספציפי הנמצא מחוץ לתחום התפוצה הטבעי של המין, ולא אל כל מרחב התפוצה של המין. על-פי הגדרה אחרת, מצומצמת יותר, המונח "מין פולש" מתייחס רק למינים שהפצתם לאזור חדש גורמת באזור זה נזק משמעותי לאדם ו/או הסביבה. המונח האנגלי המקביל (invasive species) משמש לעתים גם לתיאור מינים שהתפשטו בעקבות פעילות האדם, בתוך תחום תפוצתם הטבעי. התפשטות זו יכולה לבוא לידי ביטוי בעלייה בצפיפות היחסית של המין, בייסוד אוכלוסיות חדשות, ובפלישה לבתי-גידול חדשים. בעברית קיים מונח נפרד לתיאור מינים מסוג זה - מין מתפרץ.
המינים הפולשים הפכו לתופעה נפוצה ביותר במאה העשרים, בעקבות העלייה הדרמטית בניידות האוכלוסייה האנושית, וכיום הם מהווים בעיה חמורה בקנה מידה כלל-עולמי. בעיית המינים הפולשים היא אחת הסוגיות המרכזיות כיום בנושאי איכות הסביבה ושמירת הטבע ברחבי העולם, ואחת הסיבות העיקריות לפגיעה במגוון הביולוגי. הנזקים שמסבים המינים הפולשים לאדם, נאמדים בסכומי עתק, והם בעלי השפעה כלכלית אדירה.
תוכן עניינים
הפצה



צדפה מזיקה התמימה למראה אך גורמת לנזקים כלכליים בארצות הברית
אורגניזמים רבים הפכו למינים פולשים בעקבות פעילותו של האדם. מבחינים בין הפצה מכוונת והפצה לא-מכוונת של מינים פולשים:
הפצה מכוונת
צמחי נוי ומיני מחמד, כמו צמח הלנטנה הססגונית או התוכי דררת קרמר.
מינים המובאים כמדביר ביולוגי, כגון הנמייה ההודית או קרפדת הקנים.
מינים המובאים לצורכי חקלאות, למשל נסיכת הנילוס שיובאה לימת ויקטוריה, ואוכלת את מיני האמנונים בימה עד להכחדתם.
צרכים כלכליים, כמו נוטריות ומינקים שיובאו לצורך הקמת חוות פרווה.
הפצה לא מכוונת
מעבר לרוות במי נטל של אוניות. למשל Zebra mussel, צדפות מזיקות המתחרות עם מינים מקומיים באגמי ארצות הברית ואף גורמות לסתימה בצינורות, ובכך פוגעות גם בתחנות כוח.
מעבר על סחורות חקלאיות, כמו למשל זבוב הפירות העובר על ההדרים.
הורדת מחסומים טבעיים, למשל תעלת סואץ, אשר הביאה את החוטית הנודדת לים התיכון.
התבססות

להתנהגות הפולשנית קודמת לעתים תקופה של התבססות והתאקלמות באזור ההפצה החדש של המין. המין מייסד אוכלוסייה באתרו החדש, ולעתים אף עובר סלקציה, המתאימה אותו אל התנאים של בית הגידול החדש. בשלב הבא, אם המין יתחיל להתפשט אל אזורים חדשים באופן מאסיבי ויגדיל את אזור תפוצתו, המין יוגדר כפולש. מינים פולשים רבים עוברים קודם תקופה ממושכת של הסתגלות, לפני התפרצותם כמינים פולשים; לעתים מדובר בעשרות שנים. לכן יש לראות בכל מין המופץ אל אזור חדש בתור סכנת פלישה, גם אם הוא עדיין אינו מגלה התנהגות פולשנית.
חוק העשירית אומר שמתוך מספר אקראי (1,000 לדוגמה) של מינים שנקלעו לאתר זר בעקבות פעילות האדם, רק עשירית ימצאו בית גידול מתאים באתר החדש. מתוך אלה, רק עשירית יצליחו לשרוד ולהתבסס כאוכלוסייה. ומתוך המינים האלו רק עשירית יתפשטו ויהיו למין פולש. כלומר, 1 לאלף מינים יהיה מין פולש.
הנזקים שגורמים מינים פולשים

הפגיעה של מין פולש במגוון הביולוגי וביציבות המערכת האקולוגית יכולה להתרחש במספר אופנים:
דחיקה תחרותית של מינים מקומיים בעלי תפקיד מקביל במערכת האקולוגית.
טריפה של מינים מקומיים.
הפצת מחלות בקרב המינים המקומיים.
השפעה עקיפה - הבאת תועלת למינים מסוימים, ובעקבות שגשוגם - דחיקה תחרותית או טריפה של מינים אחרים.
שינוי באופי בית הגידול, כגון: הצללה, משטר שריפה.
באופן דומה, המין הפולש יכול לגרום נזקים אדירים גם לגידולים חקלאיים.
מכיוון שהמין הפולש זר למערכת האקולוגית הנפלשת, למינים המקומיים אין יכולת להתמודד עם האיום שמציב הפולש. לא ניתנה להם האפשרות להסתגל באופן הדרגתי אל נוכחות המין החדש, ולכן מינים מסוימים יכולים להיכחד בקלות רבה. למשל, חתול בית אחד שנקלע לאי מבודד ובו עופות מקומיים שלא ראו טורף מימיהם - עשוי לטרוף את כל גוזלי העופות, משום שהוריהם לא נקטו אמצעי זהירות כלשהם נגד טורפים.
העדרם של אויבים טבעיים למין הפולש, שיכולים לרסן את התפשטותו, מקנה לו יתרון נוסף מעל המינים המקומיים.
הנזקים שגורמים מינים פולשים, והסכנה שהם מהווים למגוון הביולוגי, חמורים באופן מיוחד באיים מסוימים, בהם חיים מינים ייחודיים רבים בעלי תפוצה מוגבלת, שלכל אורך האבולוציה שלהם שגשגו בהיעדר טורפים. דוגמאות מפורסמות הם האיים הוואי, אוסטרליה וניו זילנד. הגעתם של מינים פולשים טורפים, כמו למשל חתול הבית, אל האיים הנ"ל במאתיים השנים האחרונות, הפגישה את הטורפים הפולשים עם מינים נדירים שלא הכירו אותם ולא ידעו איך להתגונן מפניהם, ולכן הגיעו תוך זמן קצר מאוד אל סף הכחדה.
התמודדות עם מינים פולשים

הטיפול במינים פולשים נעשה על ידי מניעת מעבר המינים ממקום למקום, צמצום גודל האוכלוסייה הפולשת, או חיסול מלא של המין הפולש באותו בית גידול, אם הדבר אפשרי. הטיפול היעיל ביותר הוא מניעת הפלישה מלכתחילה.
מניעה - מדינות רבות בעולם כיום מטילות הגבלות חמורות על הכנסה של אורגניזמים זרים אל תוך תחומי המדינה. על תיירים נכנסים נאסר להכניס פירות וירקות שהובאו מחו"ל, וסחורות חקלאיות עוברות ניטור קפדני.
הדברה ביולוגית - חיסול המין הפולש על ידי הבאת האויב הטבעי שלו, מאזור מוצאו של המין. שיטת טיפול זו טומנת בחובה סכנה חמורה - הכנסת האויב של המין הפולש מהווה בעצם הכנסת מין זר נוסף אל תוך המערכת האקולוגית, שעלול להתגלות בדיעבד כמין פולש מזיק אף יותר מהמין המקורי שעבורו הובא. כדי למזער את הסיכון הנ"ל, יש צורך לבצע בדיקות קפדניות של האינטראקציות של המין החדש עם מינים רבים ככל האפשר מהמערכת האקולוגית הנפלשת. אולם בשל מורכבות העולם הביולוגי וריבוי המינים בו, לעולם לא ניתן לחזות בצורה בטוחה מה תהיינה ההשלכות של הכנסת מין זר אל תוך מערכת אקולוגית חדשה.
כריתה או ציד - סילוק אקטיבי של פרטי המין, על ידי כריתה או עקירה במקרה של צמחים, או ציד במקרה של בעלי-חיים, אינו מהווה סיכון כמו השימוש בהדברה ביולוגית. אולם במינים מסוימים, כמו חיות שבורחות על נקלה או צמחים שמפיצים זרעים העמידים לעשרות שנים, קשה לסלק את כל פרטי המין, ולעתים ניתן רק לדלל את אוכלוסייתו.
דוגמאות למינים פולשים במקומות שונים בעולם

ארנבון מצוי
פאולוניה
בולבול אדום שת
פוסום אוסטרלי כסוף-אפור
זרזיר מצוי
עכבר הבית
חיפושית אסייתית ארוכת מחוש
מיינה מצויה
צרעת העפצים
שום משולש
בונה קנדי (פולש באי ארץ האש שבדרום אמריקה)
חילזון אפריקאי ענק
ראו גם

מינים פולשים בישראל
מינים מתפרצים בישראל
לקריאה נוספת

Global Invasive Species Database, אתר של האיחוד הבינלאומי לשמירת הטבע (IUCN).
מינים פולשים בקמפוס טבע ברשת
בעיית המינים הפולשים בישראל - מצגת מאת אוהד הצופה
המשרד לאיכות הסביבה - מסמך מדיניות בנושא: מיני צמחים פולשניים בשטחים מוגנים ופתוחים באזור המרכז
צפריר רינת, צמחים פולשים ממינים זרים מאיימים על הטבע המקומי בישראל, באתר הארץ, 04/09/2009
מידע על מינים פולשים באתר משרד החקלאות האמריקאי
קטגוריות: שמירת טבעאיומים ומפגעים סביבתייםמינים פולשים
משובים קודמיםמשוב על הערך


قس انگلیسی

Invasive species, also called invasive exotics or simply exotics, is a nomenclature term and categorization phrase used for flora and fauna, and for specific restoration-preservation processes in native habitats, with several definitions.
The first definition, the most used, applies to introduced species (also called "non-indigenous" or "non-native") that adversely affect the habitats and bioregions they invade economically, environmentally, and/or ecologically. Such invasive species may be either plants or animals and may disrupt by dominating a region, wilderness areas, particular habitats, or wildland-urban interface land from loss of natural controls (such as predators or herbivores). This includes non-native invasive plant species labeled as exotic pest plants and invasive exotics growing in native plant communities. It has been used in this sense by government organizations as well as conservation groups such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the California Native Plant Society. The European Union defines "Invasive Alien Species" as those that are, firstly, outside their natural distribution area, and secondly, threaten biological diversity. It is also used by land managers, botanists, researchers, horticulturalists, conservationists, and the public for noxious weeds. The kudzu vine (Pueraria lobata), Andean Pampas grass (Cortaderia jubata), and yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis) are examples.
The second definition includes the first, but broadens the boundaries to include indigenous or native species, with the non-native ones, that disrupt by a dominant colonization of a particular habitat or wildlands area from loss of natural controls (i.e.: predators or herbivores). Deer are an example, considered to be overpopulating their native zones and adjacent suburban gardens, by some in the Northeastern and Pacific Coast regions of the United States.
The third definition identifies invasive species as a widespread nonindigenous species. This one can be too broad, as not every nonindigenous or "introduced" species has an adverse effect on a nonindigenous environment. A nonadverse example is the common goldfish (Carassius auratus), though common outside its native range globally, it is rarely in harmful densities to a native habitat.
Because of the variability of its definition, and because definitions are often from a socioeconomic perspective, the phrase invasive species is often criticized as an imprecise term for the scientific field of ecology. This article concerns the first two definitions; for the third, see Introduced species.
Contents
Conditions that lead to invasion

Scientists include species- and ecosystem factors among the mechanisms, that when combined establish invasiveness in a newly introduced species.
Species-based mechanisms
While all species compete to survive, invasive species appear to have specific traits or specific combinations of traits that allow them to outcompete native species. In some cases the competition is about rates of growth and reproduction. In other cases species interact with each other more directly.
Researchers disagree about the usefulness of traits as invasiveness markers. One study found that of a list of invasive and noninvasive species, 86% of the invasive species could be identified from the traits alone. Another study found invasive species tended only to have a small subset of the presumed traits, and that many such traits were found in noninvasive species, requiring other explanations. Common invasive species traits include:
Fast growth
Rapid reproduction
High dispersal ability
Phenotypic plasticity (the ability to alter growth form to suit current conditions)
Tolerance of a wide range of environmental conditions (Ecological competence)
Ability to live off of a wide range of food types (generalist)
Association with humans
Prior successful invasions
Typically an introduced species must survive at low population densities before it becomes invasive in a new location. At low population densities, it can be difficult for the introduced species to reproduce and maintain itself in a new location, so a species might reach a location multiple times before it becomes established. Repeated patterns of human movement, such as ships sailing to and from ports or cars driving up and down highways, offer repeated opportunities for establishment (also known as a high propagule pressure).
An introduced species might become invasive if it can outcompete native species for resources, such as nutrients, light, physical space, water or food. If these species evolved under great competition or predation, the new environment may host fewer able competitors, allowing the invader to proliferate quickly. Ecosystems in which all available resources are being used to their fullest capacity by native species can be modeled as zero-sum systems, where any gain for the invader is a loss for the native. However, such unilateral competitive superiority (and extinction of native species with increased populations of the invader) is not the rule. Invasive species often coexist with native species for an extended time, and gradually the superior competitive ability of an invasive species becomes apparent as its population grows larger and denser and it adapts to its new location.


Lantana growing in abandoned citrus plantation; Moshav Sdei Hemed, Israel
An invasive species might be able to use resources previously unavailable to native species, such as deep water sources accessed by a long taproot, or an ability to live on previously uninhabited soil types. For example, barbed goatgrass (Aegilops triuncialis) was introduced to California on serpentine soils, which have low water-retention, low nutrient levels, a high Magnesium/Calcium ratio, and possible heavy metal toxicity. Plant populations on these soils tend to show low density, but goatgrass can form dense stands on these soils, crowding out native species that have not adapted well to serpentine soils.
Ecological facilitation occurs when a species alters its environment using chemicals or manipulating abiotic factors, allowing the species to thrive, while making the environment less favorable to competitors.needed One such facilitative mechanism is allelopathy, also known as chemical competition or interference competition. In allelopathy, a plant secretes chemicals which make the surrounding soil uninhabitable, or at least inhibitory, to competing species.
Examples of this in Centaurea are Centaurea solstitialis (yellow starthistle) and Centaurea diffusa (diffuse knapweed). These Eastern European noxious weeds have spread through the western and West Coast states. Experiments show that 8-hydroxyquinoline, a chemical produced at the root of C. diffusa, has a negative effect only on plants that have not co-evolved with it. Such co-evolved native plants have also evolved defenses. C. diffusa and C. solstitialis do not appear in their native habitats to be overwhelmingly successful competitors. Success/lack of success in one habitat does not imply success in others. Conversely, examining habitats in which a species is less successful can reveal novel weapons to defeat invasiveness.
Changes in fire regimens are another form of facilitation. Bromus tectorum, originally from Eurasia, is highly fire-adapted. It not only spreads rapidly after burning, but also increases the frequency and intensity (heat) of fires, by providing large amounts of dry detritus during the fire season in western North America. In areas where it is widespread, it has altered the local fire regimen so much that native plants cannot survive the frequent fires, allowing B. tectorum to further extend and maintain dominance in its introduced range.
Facilitation also occurs when one species physically modifies a habitat in ways that are advantageous to other species. For example, zebra mussels increase habitat complexity on lake floors, providing crevices in which invertebrates live. This increase in complexity, together with the nutrition provided by the waste products of mussel filter-feeding, increases the density and diversity of benthic invertebrate communities.
Ecosystem-based mechanisms
In ecosystems, the amount of available resources and the extent to which those resources are used by organisms determines the effects of additional species on the ecosystem. In stable ecosystems, equilibrium exists in the use of available resources. These mechanisms describe a situation in which the ecosystem has suffered a disturbance which changes the fundamental nature of the ecosystem.
When changes such as a forest fire occur, normal succession favors native grasses and forbs. An introduced species that can spread faster than natives can use resources that would have been available to native species, squeezing them out. Nitrogen and phosphorus are often the limiting factors in these situations.
Every species occupies a niche in its native ecosystem; some species fill large and varied roles, while others are highly specialized. Some invading species fill niches that are not used by native species, and they also can create new niches.needed
Ecosystem changes can alter species distributions. For example edge effects describe what happens when part of an ecosystem is disturbed as when land is cleared for agriculture. The boundary between remaining undisturbed habitat and the newly cleared land itself forms a distinct habitat, creating new winners and losers and possibly hosting species that would not thrive outside the boundary habitat.needed
Ecology

Native "invaders"


Monterey cypress
Although invasive species have typically been introduced to a habitat, some native species can, under the influence of events, such as long-term rainfall changes or human modifications to the habitat, increase in number and range and become invasive by expanding into new areas and disturbing the balance of species in the new area.
All species experience increases and decreases in numbers, in many cases accompanied by expansion or contraction of range. For example, the Monterey cypress is an endangered endemic, naturally occurring only in two small stands in California. They are being exterminated as exotic invasive species less than 50 miles (80 km) from their natural habitat.needed
Traits of invaded ecosystems
In 1958, Charles S. Elton claimed that ecosystems with higher species diversity were less subject to invasive species because of fewer available niches. Other ecologists later pointed to highly diverse, but heavily invaded ecosystems and argued that ecosystems with high species diversity were more susceptible to invasion.
This debate hinged on the spatial scale at which invasion studies were performed, and the issue of how diversity affects susceptibility remained unresolved as of 2011. Small-scale studies tended to show a negative relationship between diversity and invasion, while large-scale studies tended to show the reverse. The latter result may be a side-effect of invasives ability to capitalize on increased resource availability and weaker species interactions that are more common when larger samples are considered.


The brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis)
Invasion was more likely in ecosystems that were similar to the one in which the potential invader evolved. Island ecosystems may be more prone to invasion because their species faced few strong competitors and predators, or because their distance from colonizing species populations makes them more likely to have "open" niches. An example of this phenomenon was the decimation of native bird populations on Guam by the invasive brown tree snake. Conversely, invaded ecosystems may lack the natural competitors and predators that check invasives growth in their native ecosystems, a factor that affected Guam snake populations.
Invaded ecosystems may have experienced disturbance, typically human-induced. Such a disturbance may give invasive species a chance to establish themselves with less competition from natives less able to adapt to a disturbed ecosystem.
Vectors
Non-native species have many vectors, including biogenic vectors, but most invasions are associated with human activity. Natural range extensions are common in many species, but the rate and magnitude of human-mediated extensions in these species tend to be much larger than natural extensions, and humans typically carry specimens greater distances than natural forces.
An early human vector occurred when prehistoric humans introduced the Pacific rat (Rattus exulans) to Polynesia.


Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis)
Vectors include plants or seeds imported for horticulture. The pet trade moves animals across borders, where they can escape and become invasive. Organisms stow away on transport vehicles. For example, ballast water taken up at sea and released in port is a major vector for marine invasions. Freshwater zebra mussels, native to the Black, Caspian and Azov seas, probably reached the Great Lakes via ballast water from a transoceanic vessel.
The arrival of invasive propagules to a new site is a function of the sites invasibility.
Species have also been introduced intentionally. For example, to feel more "at home", American colonists formed "Acclimation Societies" that repeatedly imported birds that were native to Europe to North America and other distant lands. In 2008, U.S. postal workers in Pennsylvania noticed noises coming from inside a box from Taiwan; the box contained more than two dozen live beetles. Agricultural Research Service entomologists identified them as rhinoceros beetle, hercules beetle, and king stag beetle. Because these species were not native to the U.S., they could have threatened native ecosystems. To prevent exotic species from becoming a problem in the U.S., special handling and permits are required when living materials are shipped from foreign countries. USDA programs such as Smuggling Interdiction and Trade Compliance (SITC) attempt to prevent exotic species outbreaks in America.
Economics plays a major role in exotic species introduction. High demand for the valuable Chinese mitten crab is one explanation for the possible intentional release of the species in foreign waters.needed
Impacts of wildfire
Invasive species often exploit disturbances to an ecosystem (wildfires, roads, foot trails) to colonize an area. Large wildfires are capable of sterilizing soils, while adding a variety of nutrients. In the resulting free-for-all, formerly entrenched species lose their advantage, leaving more room for invasives. In such circumstances plants that can regenerate from their roots have an advantage. Non-natives with this ability can benefit from a low intensity fire burns that removes surface vegetation, leaving natives that rely on seeds for propagation to find their niches occupied when their seeds finally sprout.
Impact of wildfire suppression on spreading
Wildfires often occur in remote areas, needing fire suppression crews to travel through pristine forest to reach the site. The crews can bring invasive seeds with them. If any of these stowaway seeds become established, a thriving colony of invasives can erupt in as few as six weeks, after which controlling the outbreak can need years of continued attention to prevent further spread. Also, disturbing the soil surface, such as cutting firebreaks, destroys native cover, exposes soil, and can accelerate invasions. In suburban and wildland-urban interface areas, the vegetation clearance and brush removal ordinances of municipalities for defensible space can result in excessive removal of native shrubs and perennials that exposes the soil to more light and less competition for invasive plant species.needed
Fire suppression vehicles are often major culprits in such outbreaks, as the vehicles are often driven on back roads often overgrown with invasive plant species. The undercarriage of the vehicle becomes a prime vessel of transport. In response, on large fires, washing stations "decontaminate" vehicles before engaging in suppression activities.needed Large wild fires attract firefighters from remote locales, further increasing the potential for seed transport.needed
Impact

Ecological
Land clearing and human habitation put significant pressure on local species. Disturbed habitats are prone to invasions that can have adverse effects on local ecosystems, changing ecosystem functions. A species of wetland plant known as ʻaeʻae in Hawaii (the indigenous Bacopa monnieri) is regarded as a pest species in artificially manipulated water bird refuges because it quickly covers shallow mudflats established for endangered Hawaiian stilt (Himantopus mexicanus knudseni), making these undesirable feeding areas for the birds.
Multiple successive introductions of different non-native species can have interactive effects; the introduction of a second non-native species can enable the first invasive species to flourish. Examples of this are the introductions of the amethyst gem clam (Gemma gemma) and the European green crab (Carcinus maenas). The gem clam was introduced into Californias Bodega Harbor from the East Coast of the United States a century ago. It had been found in small quantities in the harbor but had never displaced the native clam species (Nutricola spp.). In the mid 1990s, the introduction of the European green crab, found to prey preferentially on the native clams, resulted in a decline of the native clams and an increase of the introduced clam populations.
In the Waterberg region of South Africa, cattle grazing over the past six centuries has allowed invasive scrub and small trees to displace much of the original grassland, resulting in a massive reduction in forage for native bovids and other grazers. Since the 1970s, large scale efforts have been underway to reduce invasive species; partial success has led to re-establishment of many species that had dwindled or left the region. Examples of these species are giraffe, blue wildebeest, impala, kudu and white rhino.
Invasive species can change the functions of ecosystems. For example, invasive plants can alter the fire regimen (cheatgrass, Bromus tectorum), nutrient cycling (smooth cordgrass Spartina alterniflora), and hydrology (Tamarix) in native ecosystems. Invasive species that are closely related to rare native species have the potential to hybridize with the native species. Harmful effects of hybridization have led to a decline and even extinction of native species. For example, hybridization with introduced cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora, threatens the existence of California cordgrass (Spartina foliosa) in San Francisco Bay.
Economic
Benefits
Non-native species can have benefits. Asian oysters, for example, better filter water pollutants than native oysters. They also grow faster and withstand disease better than natives. Biologists are currently considering releasing this mollusk in the Chesapeake Bay to help restore oyster stocks and remove pollution. A recent study by the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health found the Asian oyster could significantly benefit the bays deteriorating water quality.
Costs
Economic costs from invasive species can be separated into direct costs through production loss in agriculture and forestry, and management costs. Estimated damage and control cost of invasive species in the U.S. alone amount to more than $138 billion annually. Economic losses can also occur through loss of recreational and tourism revenues. When economic costs of invasions are calculated as production loss and management costs, they are low because they do not consider environmental damage; if monetary values were assigned to the extinction of species, loss in biodiversity, and loss of ecosystem services, costs from impacts of invasive species would drastically increase. The following examples from different sectors of the economy demonstrate the impact of biological invasions.
Economic opportunities
Some invasions offer potential commercial benefits. For instance, silver carp and common carp can be harvested for human food and exported to markets already familiar with the product, or processed into pet foods, or mink feed. Vegetative invasives such as water hyacinth can be turned into fuel by methane digestersneeded.
Agriculture
Weeds reduce yield, though they may provide essential nutrients. Some deep-rooted weeds can "mine" nutrients (see dynamic accumulator) from the subsoil and deposit them on the topsoil, while others provide habitat for beneficial insects and/or provide foods for pest species. Many weed species are accidental introductions that accompany seeds and imported plant material. Many introduced weeds in pastures compete with native forage plants, threaten young cattle (e.g., leafy spurge, Euphorbia esula) or are unpalatable because of thorns and spines (e.g., yellow starthistle). Forage loss from invasive weeds on pastures amounts to nearly US$1 billion in the U.S. alone. A decline in pollinator services and loss of fruit production has been caused by honey bees infected by the invasive varroa mite. Introduced rats (Rattus rattus and R. norvegicus) have become serious pests on farms, destroying stored grains.
Forestry
The unintentional introduction of forest pest species and plant pathogens can change forest ecology and damage the timber industry. The Asian long-horned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) was first introduced into the U.S. in 1996, and was expected to infect and damage millions of acres of hardwood trees. As of 2005 thirty million dollars had been spent in attempts to eradicate this pest and protect millions of trees in the affected regions.
In North America, the woolly adelgid has inflicted damage on old-growth spruce fir and hemlock forests and damages the Christmas tree industry. The chestnut blight fungus (Cryphonectria parasitica) and Dutch elm disease (Ophiostoma novo-ulmi) are two plant pathogens with serious impacts on these two species, and forest health.
Tourism and recreation
Invasive species can impact outdoor recreation, such as fishing, hunting, hiking, wildlife viewing, and water-based activities. They can damage a wide array of environmental services that are important to recreation, including, but not limited to, water quality and quantity, plant and animal diversity, and species abundance. Eiswerth states, "very little research has been performed to estimate the corresponding economic losses at spatial scales such as regions, states, and watersheds." Eurasian Watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) in parts of the US, fill lakes with plants complicating fishing and boating.
Health
Encroachment of humans into previously remote ecosystems has exposed exotic diseases such as AIDS virus to the wider population. Introduced birds (e.g. pigeons), rodents and insects (e.g. mosquito, flea, louse and tsetse fly pests) can serve as vectors and reservoirs of human afflictions. The introduced Chinese mitten crabs are carriers of Asian lung fluke. Throughout recorded history, epidemics of human diseases, such as malaria, yellow fever, typhus, and bubonic plague, spread via these vectors. A recent example of an introduced disease is the spread of the West Nile virus, which killed humans, birds, mammals, and reptiles. Waterborne disease agents, such as cholera bacteria (Vibrio cholerae), and causative agents of harmful algal blooms are often transported via ballast water. Invasive species and accompanying control efforts can have long term public health implications. For instance, pesticides applied to treat a particular pest species could pollute soil and surface water.
Biodiversity
Main article: Biodiversity
Biotic invasion is considered one of the five top drivers for global biodiversity loss and is increasing because of tourism and globalization.needed This may be particularly true in inadequately regulated fresh water systems, though quarantines and ballast water rules have improved the situation.
Invasive species may drive local native species to extinction via competitive exclusion, niche displacement, or hybridisation with related native species. Therefore, besides their economic ramifications, alien invasions may result in extensive changes in the structure, composition and global distribution of the biota of sites of introduction, leading ultimately to the homogenisation of the world’s fauna and flora and the loss of biodiversity. Nevertheless, it is difficult to unequivocally attribute extinctions to a species invasion, and the few scientific studies that have done so have been with animal taxa. Concern over the impacts of invasive species on biodiversity must therefore consider the actual evidence (either ecological or economic), in relation to the potential risk.needed
Genetic pollution
Main article: Genetic pollution
Native species can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution. Genetic pollution is unintentional hybridization and introgression, which leads to homogenization or replacement of local genotypes as a result of either a numerical or fitness advantage of the introduced species. Genetic pollution can operate either through introduction or through habitat modification, bringing previously isolated species into contact. Hybrids resulting from rare species that interbreed with abundant species can swamp the rarer species gene pool. This is not always apparent from morphological observations alone. Some degree of gene flow is normal, and preserves constellations of genes and genotypes. An example of this is the interbreeding of migrating coyotes with the red wolf, in areas of eastern North Carolina where the red wolf was reintroduced.needed

Biogeographic evaluation

Stage Characteristic
0 Propagules residing in a donor region
I Traveling
II Introduced
III Localized and numerically rare
IVa Widespread but rare
IVb Localized but dominant
V Widespread and dominant
In an attempt to avoid the ambiguous, subjective, and pejorative vocabulary that so often accompanies discussion of invasive species even in scientific papers, Colautti and MacIsaac proposed a new nomenclature system based on biogeography rather than on taxa.
By discarding taxonomy, human health, and economic factors, this model focused only on ecological factors. The model evaluated individual populations rather than entire species. It classified each population based on its success in that environment. This model applied equally to indigenous and to introduced species, and did not automatically categorize successful introductions as harmful.
See also

Applied ecology
Ballast water discharge and the environment
Ecosynthesis
Genetic pollution
Global Invasive Species Information Network
Introduced species
Invader potential
Invasion biology terminology for a review of the terminology used in invasion biology.
Invasive earthworms of North America
Introduced mammals on seabird breeding islands
Island restoration
List of invasive species
List of the worlds 100 worst invasive species
Beaver eradication in Tierra del Fuego
Noxious weed
Pheromone trap
Invasive species by country
Invasive species in Australia
Invasive species in New Zealand
Invasive species in the United States
References

This article incorporates CC-BY-3.0 text from the reference
Notes
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^ Ayres, D.; et al. (2004). "Spread of exotic cordgrasses and hybrids (Spartina sp.) in the tidal marshes of San Francisco Bay, California". USA Biological Invasions 6 (2): 221–231. DOI:10.1023/B:BINV.0000022140.07404.b7.
^ Tom Pelton, Baltimore Sun, May 26, 2006.
^ a b c d e f g Pimentel, D.; R. Zuniga and D., Morrison (2005). "Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States". Ecological Economics 52 (3): 273–288. DOI:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.10.002.
^ Simberloff, D. (2001). "Biological invasions - How are they affecting us, and what can we do about them?". Western North American Naturalist 61: 308–315.
^ Balsam woolly aphid Adelges piceae (Ratzeburg) ForestPests.org (March 3, 2005) Retrieved on September 1, 2007.
^ Scott E. Schlarbaum, Frederick Hebard, Pauline C. Spaine, and Joseph C. Kamalay (1997). "Three American Tragedies: Chestnut Blight, Butternut Canker and Dutch Elm Disease". (originally published via: Proceedings: Exotic Pests of Eastern Forests; (1997 April 8-10); Nashville, TN. Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant Council: 45-54.). Southern Research Station, Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved June 22, 2012.
Alternative link and additional publication citation information: Tree Search, US Forest Service, USDA.
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^ Aquatic invasive species. A Guide to Least-Wanted Aquatic Organisms of the Pacific Northwest. 2001. University of Washington
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^ Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). "Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis" (PDF). World Resources Institute.
^ a b Odendaal L. J., Haupt T. M. & Griffiths C. L. (2008). "The alien invasive land snail Theba pisana in the West Coast National Park: Is there cause for concern?". Koedoe - African Protected Area Conservation and Science 50(1): 93-98. abstract, doi:10.4102/koedoe.v50i1.153.
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^ "Glossary: definitions from the following publication: Aubry, C., R. Shoal and V. Erickson. 2005. Grass cultivars: their origins, development, and use on national forests and grasslands in the Pacific Northwest. USDA Forest Service. 44 pages, plus appendices.; Native Seed Network (NSN), Institute for Applied Ecology, 563 SW Jefferson Ave, Corvallis, OR 97333, USA". Nativeseednetwork.org. Retrieved 2011-05-17.
^ EXTINCTION BY HYBRIDIZATION AND INTROGRESSION; by Judith M. Rhymer, Department of Wildlife Ecology, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, USA; and Daniel Simberloff, Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, USA; Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, November 1996, Vol. 27, Pages 83-109 doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.83,
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Further reading
Baskin, Yvonne (2003). A Plague of Rats and Rubbervines: The Growing Threat Of Species Invasions. Island Press. p. 377. ISBN 978-1-55963-051-1.
Burdick, Alan (2006) . Out of Eden: An Odyssey of Ecological Invasion. Farrar Straus and Giroux. p. 336. ISBN 0-374-53043-2.
Davis, Mark A. (2009). Invasion Biology. Oxford University Press. p. 243. ISBN 0-19-921876-5.
Elton, Charles S. (2000) published 1958. The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants. University of Chicago Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-226-20638-7.
Lockwood, Julie; Martha Hoopes, Michael Marchetti (2007) . Invasion Ecology. Blackwell Publishing. p. 304. ISBN 978-1-4051-1418-9.
McNeeley, Jeffrey A. (2001). The Great Reshuffling: Human Dimensions Of Invasive Alien Species. World Conservation Union (IUCN). p. 109. ISBN 978-2-8317-0602-3.
Terrill, Ceiridwen (2007). Unnatural Landscapes: Tracking Invasive Species. University of Arizona Press. p. 240. ISBN 0-8165-2523-4.
Van Driesche, Jason; Roy Van Driesche (2004). Nature Out of Place: Biological Invasions In The Global Age. Island Press. p. 377. ISBN 978-1-55963-758-9.
External links

Invasive Species Compendium, An encyclopaedic resource that draws together scientific information on all aspects of invasive species.
Invasive Species, National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for invasive species.
Synthesizing ecology and evolution for the study of invasive species - Special Issue of Evolutionary Applications
Invasive Species Specialist Group - global invasive species database
Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk project (PIER)
Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR)
www.invadingspecies.com Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Ontario Federation of Anglers and Hunters
Aquatic invasive species in Ireland Aquatic invasive species in Ireland
Invasive alien species in Belgium Belgian Forum on Invasive Species (BFIS)
"Invasive species" from the Global Legal Information Network Subject Term Index
Dont Move Firewood - Part of the Continental Dialogue on Non-Native Forest Insects and Diseases
The Naked Scientists Invasive Species Articles Ecologists challenge the categories that identify some species as natives and others as invaders.
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